The Origins of Human Language cosmological role as the "Mother of the Vedas".

The
Aztecs' story maintains that only a man, Coxcox, and a
The origin of language (spoken and signed, as well as woman, Xochiquetzal, survived a flood, having floated on
language-related technological systems such as writing), a piece of bark. They found themselves on land and had
its relationship with human evolution, and its many children who were at first born unable to speak,
consequences have been subjects of study for centuries. but subsequently, upon the arrival of a dove, were
Scholars wishing to study the origins of language must endowed with language, although each one was given a
draw inferences from evidence such as the fossil record, different speech such that they could not understand one
archaeological evidence, contemporary language another.[210]
diversity, studies of language acquisition, and
comparisons between human language and systems of
communication existing among animals (particularly
other primates). Many argue that the origins of language In the Old Testament, the Book of Genesis (chapter 11)
probably relate closely to the origins of modern human says that God prevented the Tower of Babel from being
behavior, but there is little agreement about the facts and completed through a miracle that made its construction
implications of this connection. workers start speaking different languages. After this,
they migrated to other regions, grouped together
The shortage of direct, empirical evidence has caused according to which of the newly created languages they
many scholars to regard the entire topic as unsuitable for spoke, explaining the origins of languages and nations
serious study; in 1866, the Linguistic Society of Paris outside of the Fertile Crescent.
banned any existing or future debates on the subject, a
prohibition which remained influential across much of the In the view of Qur’an, since language is one of the most
Western world until late in the twentieth century.[1][2] important things for humans, it becomes the first thing
Various hypotheses have been developed about how, which is taught by God to Adam as the first human.
why, when, and where language might have emerged.[3] Qur’an states that the origin of spoken language is the
Still, little more has been universally agreed upon today instruction from God as said: (31). And He taught Adam
(as of 1996) than over a century and a half ago, when all the names (of everything), then He showed them to
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection the angels and said, "Tell Me the names of these if you
provoked a surge of speculation on the topic. Since the are truthful.'' (32). They (angels) said: "Glory is to You, we
early 1990s, however, a number of linguists, have no knowledge except what you have taught us.
archaeologists, psychologists, anthropologists, and others Verily, You are the Knower, the Wise.'' (33). He said: "O
have attempted to address this issue with new, modern Adam! Inform them of their names,'' and when he had
methods. informed them of their names, He said: "Did I not tell you
that I know the Ghayb (unseen) in the heavens and the
earth, and I know what you reveal and what you have
been concealing'' (Noble Qur’an, al-Baqarah,2:31 33).
Accounts on the Origin of Language According to Ibnu Abbas that God taught Adam all the
Religious Accounts
that people use, such as human, animal, sky, earth, land,
The search for the origin of language has a long history in
sea, horse, donkey, and so forth, including the names of
mythology. Most mythologies do not credit humans with
the other species.
the invention of language but speak of a divine language
predating human language. Mystical languages used to Scientific Theories
communicate with animals or spirits, such as the
language of the birds, are also common, and were of In 1861, historical linguist Max Müller published a list of
particular interest during the Renaissance. speculative theories concerning the origins of spoken
language:
Vāc is the Hindu goddess of speech, or "speech
personified". As Brahman's "sacred utterance", she has a
Bow-wow. The bow-wow or cuckoo theory, which Müller Revelationist: Language was gifted to humans by God,
attributed to the German philosopher Johann Gottfried and it was thus God—and not humans—who named
Herder, saw early words as imitations of the cries of everything.
beasts and birds.
Revelationist-Conventionalist: God revealed to humans a
Pooh-pooh. The pooh-pooh theory saw the first words as core base of language—enabling humans to
emotional interjections and exclamations triggered by communicate with each other—and then humans
pain, pleasure, surprise, etc. invented the rest of language.

Ding-dong. Müller suggested what he called the ding- Non-Committal: The view that conventionalist and
dong theory, which states that all things have a vibrating revelationist theories are equally plausible.
natural resonance, echoed somehow by man in his
earliest words. Humanistic theory

Yo-he-ho. The yo-he-ho theory claims language emerged The humanistic tradition considers language as a human
from collective rhythmic labor, the attempt to invention. Renaissance philosopher Antoine Arnauld gave
synchronize muscular effort resulting in sounds such as a detailed description of his idea of the origin of language
heave alternating with sounds such as ho. in Port-Royal Grammar. According to Arnauld, people are
social and rational by nature, and this urged them to
Ta-ta. This did not feature in Max Müller's list, having create language as a means to communicate their ideas
been proposed in 1930 by Sir Richard Paget.[36] to others. Language construction would have occurred
According to the ta-ta theory, humans made the earliest through a slow and gradual process.[71] In later theory,
words by tongue movements that mimicked manual especially in functional linguistics, the primacy of
gestures, rendering them audible. communication is emphasized over psychological needs.

Most scholars today consider all such theories not so The exact way language evolved is however not
much wrong—they occasionally offer peripheral insights considered as vital to the study of languages. Structural
—as naïve and irrelevant.[37][38] The problem with these linguist Ferdinand de Saussure abandoned evolutionary
theories is that they are so narrowly mechanistic.[citation linguistics after having come to the firm conclusion that it
needed] They assume that once human ancestors had would not be able to provide any further revolutionary
discovered the appropriate ingenious mechanism for insight after the completion of the major works in
linking sounds with meanings, language automatically historical linguistics by the end of the 19th century.
evolved. Saussure was particularly sceptical of the attempts of
August Schleicher and other Darwinian linguists to access
Medieval Muslim Views on the Origin of Language prehistorical languages through series of reconstructions
Medieval Muslim scholars also developed theories on the of proto-languages.
origin of language.[39][40] Their theories were of five Saussure's solution to the problem of language evolution
general types: involves dividing theoretical linguistics in two.
Naturalist: There is a natural relation between Evolutionary and historical linguistics are renamed as
expressions and the things they signify. Language thus diachronic linguistics. It is the study of language change,
emerged from a natural human inclination to imitate the but it has only limited explanatory power due to the
sounds of nature. inadequacy of all of the reliable research material that
could ever be made available. Synchronic linguistics, in
Conventionalist: Language is a social convention. The contrast, aims to widen scientists' understanding of
names of things are arbitrary inventions of humans. language through a study of a given contemporary or
historical language stage as a system in its own right.[74]
Although Saussure paid much focus to diachronic the first anatomically modern humans in southern Africa
linguistics, later structuralists who equated structuralism and the last exodus from Africa respectively). "That leaves
with the synchronic analysis were sometimes criticised of us with about 130,000 years, or approximately 5,000–
ahistoricism. According to structural anthropologist 6,000 generations of time for evolutionary change. This is
Claude Lévi-Strauss, language and meaning—in not 'overnight in one generation' as some have
opposition to "knowledge, which develops slowly and (incorrectly) inferred—but neither is it on the scale of
progressively"—must have appeared in an instant. geological eons. It's time enough—within the ballpark for
what Nilsson and Pelger (1994) estimated as the time
Chomsky's single-step theory required for the full evolution of a vertebrate eye from a
According to Noam Chomsky's single-mutation theory, single cell, even without the invocation of any 'evo-devo'
the emergence of language resembled the formation of a effects."
crystal; with digital infinity as the seed crystal in a super- The single-mutation theory of language evolution has
saturated primate brain, on the verge of blossoming into been directly questioned on different grounds. A formal
the human mind, by physical law, once evolution added a analysis of the probability of such a mutation taking place
single small but crucial keystone.[77][66] Thus, in this and going to fixation in the species has concluded that
theory, language appeared rather suddenly within the such a scenario is unlikely, with multiple mutations with
history of human evolution. Chomsky, writing with more moderate fitness effects being more probable.
computational linguist and computer scientist Robert [79] Another criticism has questioned the logic of the
C. Berwick, suggests that this scenario is completely argument for single mutation and puts forward that from
compatible with modern biology. They note that "none of the formal simplicity of Merge, the capacity Berwick and
the recent accounts of human language evolution seem Chomsky deem the core property of human language that
to have completely grasped the shift from conventional emerged suddenly, one cannot derive the (number of)
Darwinism to its fully stochastic modern version— evolutionary steps that led to it.[80]
specifically, that there are stochastic effects not only due
to sampling like directionless drift, but also due to The Romulus and Remus hypothesis[edit]
directed stochastic variation in fitness, migration, and
heritability—indeed, all the "forces" that affect individual The Romulus and Remus hypothesis, proposed by
or gene frequencies ... All this can affect evolutionary neuroscientist Andrey Vyshedskiy, seeks to address the
outcomes—outcomes that as far as we can make out are question as to why the modern speech apparatus
not brought out in recent books on the evolution of originated over 500,000 years before the earliest signs of
language, yet would arise immediately in the case of any modern human imagination. This hypothesis proposes
new genetic or individual innovation, precisely the kind of that there were two phases that led to modern recursive
scenario likely to be in play when talking about language's language. The phenomenon of recursion occurs across
emergence." multiple linguistic domains, arguably most prominently
in syntax and morphology. Thus, by nesting a structure
Citing evolutionary geneticist Svante Pääbo, they concur such as a sentence or a word within themselves, it
that a substantial difference must have occurred to enables the generation of potentially (countably) infinite
differentiate Homo sapiens from Neanderthals to new variations of that structure. For example, the base
"prompt the relentless spread of our species, who had sentence [Peter likes apples.] can be nested
never crossed open water, up and out of Africa and then in irrealis clauses to produce [[Mary said [Peter likes
on across the entire planet in just a few tens of thousands apples.]], [Paul believed [Mary said [Peter likes apples.]]]
of years. ... What we do not see is any kind of 'gradualism' and so forth.[81]
in new tool technologies or innovations like fire, shelters,
or figurative art." Berwick and Chomsky therefore suggest The first phase includes the slow development of non-
language emerged approximately between 200,000 years recursive language with a large vocabulary along with the
ago and 60,000 years ago (between the appearance of modern speech apparatus, which includes changes to the
hyoid bone, increased voluntary control of the muscles of
the diaphragm, the evolution of the FOXP2 gene, as well Two types of evidence support this theory.
as other changes by 600,000 years ago.[82] Then, the
second phase was a rapid Chomskian single step, Gestural language and vocal language depend on similar
consisting of three distinct events that happened in quick neural systems. The regions on the cortex that are
succession around 70,000 years ago and allowed the shift responsible for mouth and hand movements border each
from non-recursive to recursive language in early other.
hominins. Nonhuman primates can use gestures or symbols for at
A genetic mutation that slowed down the prefrontal least primitive communication, and some of their
synthesis (PFS) critical period of at least two children that gestures resemble those of humans, such as the "begging
lived together. posture", with the hands stretched out, which humans
share with chimpanzees.[86][87]
This allowed these children to create recursive elements
of language such as spatial prepositions. Research has found strong support for the idea
that verbal language and sign language depend on similar
Then this merged with their parents' non-recursive neural structures. Patients who used sign language, and
language to create recursive language.[83] who suffered from a left-hemisphere lesion, showed the
same disorders with their sign language as vocal patients
It is not enough for children to have a modern prefrontal did with their oral language.[88] Other researchers found
cortex (PFC) to allow the development of PFS; the that the same left-hemisphere brain regions were active
children must also be mentally stimulated and have during sign language as during the use of vocal or written
recursive elements already in their language to acquire language.
PFS. Since their parents would not have invented these
elements yet, the children would have had to do it Primate gesture is at least partially genetic: different
themselves, which is a common occurrence among young nonhuman apes will perform gestures characteristic of
children that live together, in a process their species, even if they have never seen another ape
called cryptophasia.[84] This means that delayed PFC perform that gesture. For example, gorillas beat their
development would have allowed more time to acquire breasts. This shows that gestures are an intrinsic and
PFS and develop recursive elements. important part of primate communication, which
supports the idea that language evolved from gesture.
Delayed PFC development also comes with negative
consequences, such as a longer period of reliance on Further evidence suggests that gesture and language are
one's parents to survive and lower survival rates. For linked. In humans, manually gesturing has an effect on
modern language to have occurred, PFC delay had to concurrent vocalizations, thus creating certain natural
have an immense survival benefit in later life, such as PFS vocal associations of manual efforts. Chimpanzees move
ability. This suggests that the mutation that caused PFC their mouths when performing fine motor tasks. These
delay and the development of recursive language and PFS mechanisms may have played an evolutionary role in
occurred simultaneously, which lines up with evidence of enabling the development of intentional vocal
a genetic bottleneck around 70,000 years ago.[85] This communication as a supplement to gestural
could have been the result of a few individuals who communication. Voice modulation could have been
developed PFS and recursive language which gave them prompted by preexisting manual actions.
significant competitive advantage over all other humans
at the time.[83] From infancy, gestures both supplement and predict
speech.[91][92] This addresses the idea that gestures
Gestural theory quickly change in humans from a sole means of
communication (from a very young age) to a
The gestural theory states that human language supplemental and predictive behavior that is used despite
developed from gestures that were used for simple the ability to communicate verbally. This too serves as a
communication.
parallel to the idea that gestures developed first and into force[96] could trust in communicative intentions be
language subsequently built upon it. automatically assumed, at last allowing Homo sapiens to
shift to a more efficient default format. Since vocal
Two possible scenarios have been proposed for the distinctive features (sound contrasts) are ideal for this
development of language, one of which supports the purpose, it was only at this point—when intrinsically
gestural theory: persuasive body-language was no longer required to
*Language developed from the calls of human ancestors. convey each message—that the decisive shift from
manual gesture to the current primary reliance
*Language was derived from gesture. on spoken language occurred.[18][20][97]

The first perspective that language evolved from the calls A comparable hypothesis states that in 'articulate'
of human ancestors seems logical because both humans language, gesture and vocalisation are intrinsically linked,
and animals make sounds or cries. One evolutionary as language evolved from equally intrinsically linked
reason to refute this is that, anatomically, the centre that dance and song.[14]
controls calls in monkeys and other animals is located in a
completely different part of the brain than in humans. In Humans still use manual and facial gestures when they
monkeys, this centre is located in the depths of the brain speak, especially when people meet who have no
related to emotions. In the human system, it is located in language in common.[98] There are also a great number
an area unrelated to emotion. Humans can communicate of sign languages still in existence, commonly associated
simply to communicate—without emotions. So, with Deaf communities. These sign languages are equal in
anatomically, this scenario does not work.[93] This complexity, sophistication, and expressive power, to any
suggests that language was derived from gesture[94] oral language.[99] The cognitive functions are similar and
(humans communicated by gesture first and sound was the parts of the brain used are similar. The main
attached later). difference is that the "phonemes" are produced on the
outside of the body, articulated with hands, body, and
The important question for gestural theories is why there facial expression, rather than inside the body articulated
was a shift to vocalization. Various explanations have with tongue, teeth, lips, and breathing.[100] (Compare
been proposed: the motor theory of speech perception.)

Human ancestors started to use more and more tools, It is suggested that nature has allotted psychological
meaning that their hands were occupied and could no representations to all gestures, including vocal gestures.
longer be used for gesturing.[95] Animals have no intellectual purpose. Hence animals of
the same species from different continents can
Manual gesturing requires that speakers and listeners be
communicate psychologically without learning any sign
visible to one another. In many situations, they might
language. In the case of humans, in addition to the
need to communicate, even without visual contact—for
gestures, the vocal gestures are arbitrarily converted into
example after nightfall or when foliage obstructs visibility.
the intellectual sense. This arbitrariness depends on
A composite hypothesis holds that early language took biological, psychological, and intellectual needs and
the form of part gestural and part capabilities, which differ from place to place, creating
vocal mimesis (imitative 'song-and-dance'), combining language differences.
modalities because all signals (like those of nonhuman
Critics of gestural theory note that it is difficult to name
apes and monkeys) still needed to be costly in order to be
serious reasons why the initial pitch-based vocal
intrinsically convincing. In that event, each multi-media
communication (which is present in primates) would be
display would have needed not just to disambiguate an
abandoned in favor of the much less effective non-vocal,
intended meaning but also to inspire confidence in the
gestural communication. However, Michael Corballis has
signal's reliability. The suggestion is that only once
pointed out that it is supposed that primate vocal
community-wide contractual understandings had come
communication (such as alarm calls) cannot be controlled
consciously, unlike hand movement, and thus it is not
credible as precursor to human language; primate
vocalization is rather homologous to and continued in
involuntary reflexes (connected with basic human
emotions) such as screams or laughter (the fact that
these can be faked does not disprove the fact that
genuine involuntary responses to fear or surprise exist).
[94] Also, gesture is not generally less effective, and
depending on the situation can even be advantageous,
for example in a loud environment or where it is
important to be silent, such as on a hunt. Other
challenges to the "gesture-first" theory have been
presented by researchers in psycholinguistics,
including David McNeill.