LECTURE-9

POLYMERS

Introduction :

Polymers form the backbone of the modern civilization and arc the chief products of
the modern chemical industries. Polymers. (Greek poly means many and mer means
unit or part), are very high molecular mass compounds, each molecule of which
consists a very large number of simple structural units joined together through
covalent bonds in regular fashion. The simple molecules from which the repeating
structural units are derived are called monomer, and the process by which these simple
molecules, i.e., monomers are converted into polymers is called polymerisation.

Classification of Polymers :

1. Classification of Polymers on the basis of Origin :

(A) Natural Polymers :

They are available in nature (animals or plants). Examples of such polymers arc:
natural rubber (1, 4-cis-polyisoprene), natural silk, cellulose, starch, proteins. etc.
Polymers such as polysaccharides (starch, cellulose), proteins and nucleic acids
etc.. which control various life processes in plants and animals are called
biopolymers.

(B) Semisynthetic Polymers :

They are chemically modified natural polymers such as hydrogenated,

halogenated or hydro-halogenated natural rubber, cellulosics, i.e., esters and
ethers of cellulose such as cellulose nitrate, methyl cellulose. etc.

(C) Synthetic Polymers :

They are man made polymers prepared synthetically such as polyethylene,

polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride. polyesters, Bakelite, Buna-S, Nylon, Dacron etc.

2. Classification on the Basis of Thermal Response :

(A) Thermoplastic Polymers :

Polymers which can be easily softened when heated and hardened with little change
in their properties. They can be softened or plasticized repeatedly on application of
thermal energy, without much change in properties if treated with certain precautions.
e.g. polyolefins, polystyrene, nylons, linear polyesters and polyethers, polyvinyl
chloride, Teflon etc. They normally remain soluble and fusible after many cycles of
heating and cooling.

(B) Thermosetting Polymers :

Polymers which undergo permanent change on heating. They can be obtained in

soluble and fusible forms in early or intermediate stages of their synthesis. but they
get packed or cured and become insoluble and infusible when further heated or
thermally treated. The curing or packing process involves chemical reactions leading
to further growth and cross linking of the polymer chain molecule and producing giant
molecules, e.g. Bakelite, melamine formaldehyde, diene rubbers, unsaturated
polyesters etc.

Certain plastics do not soften very much on heating. These can be easily softened by
the addition of some organic compound which are called plasticizers. For example.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is very stiff and hard but it is made soft by adding plasticizer
e.g. Dioctyl phthalate (DOP).

(C) Fibres :

Polymers which have strong intermolecular forces between chains. These forces are
either H–bonds or dipole-dipole interaction. These are closely packed with a high
tensile strength and less elasticity. Therefore, they have sharp melting points. These
polymers are long, thin and thread like and can be woven in fabrics. Some of the
example of these polymers are Nylon-66. Dacron. etc.

(D) Elastomers :

Polymer with elastic character like rubber. In elastomers the polymer chains are bound
together by weakest intermolecular forces. These are easily stretched by applying small
stress and regains its original shape when stress is removed. For example, natural
rubber.

The natural rubber is a gummy material which has poor elasticity. However, when
natural rubber is heated with 3-5% sulphur, it becomes non-sticky and more elastic.
This process is called vulcanization and product formed is vulcanized rubber which
has better tensile strength and resistance to abrasion than natural rubber.

3. Classification on the Basis of Formation :

(A) Addition Polymers :

They are formed from olefins, diolefinic, vinylic and related monomers. They all have
–C–C– linkages along the main chains of the polymer molecules and usually no other
atom appears in the main chain. These polymers are formed by simple additions of
monomer molecules to each other in quick succession by a chain mechanism. This is
known as addition polymerization or chain–growth polymerization. The examples
of such polymers are: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polybutadiene,
polyvinyl chloride. etc.

(B) Condensation Polymers :

A polymer formed by the condensation of two or more than two different monomers
with the elimination of the species like water, ammonia, hydrogen chloride or alcohol
etc., is called condensation polymer. In this type of polymerization generally each
monomer contains two functional groups.

Besides –C–C– linkages, they contain atoms such as O, N, S, etc., at regular intervals in
the main chain. The process of their formation is called condensation polymerization
or step–growth polymerization. Polyamides. polyesters, polyethers. polyurethanes,
terylene, bakelite, epoxy resins and alkyd resins, etc., are examples of condensation
polymers.

4. Classification on the Basis of Structure :

(A) Linear Polymers :

These can schematically be represented by lines of finite lengths with well packed
structure, having high densities, high tensile (puffing) strength and high melting
points. They are formed from olefinic, vinylic or related polymerization under suitable
conditions or by condensation polymerization of bifunctional monomers. Linear
polymers such as high density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene. Nylon-6,
etc. are soluble and fusible.

(B) Branched Polymers :

They can be schematically represented by lines of finite lengths with the short or long
branch structures of repeated units. The branches appear as a consequence of
uncontrolled side reactions during polymerization or by design of polymerization.
Branched polymers are usually more readily soluble and fusible than linear polymers
of comparable chain length or molecular weight. For example, low density polythene,
glycogen, starch etc.
(C) Cross-linked or Network Polymers :

They can be represented by a network structure, planar-network as in graphite or

space-network as in diamond. Cross-linked polymers are insoluble and infusible as the
molecules in them are giant molecules, often of unusually high or infinite molecular
weight. Depending on the nature and frequency of cross-links, such polymers may
show different orders of swelling in solvents. These polymers are hard, rigid, brittle
because of network structure. Examples are: Phenol—formaldehyde resins, epoxy
resins, vulcanized rubber etc.

Molecular masses of Polymers :

The molecular mass of a polymer can be expressed in two ways.

(A) Number average molecular mass :

If N1, N2, N3 ... are the number of molecules with molecular masses

M1, M2, M3 ....respectively.

̅ N = N1M1+N2M2+N3M3+ …
M N +N +N
1 2 3

̅ N = ∑(Ni Mi )
This may be expressed as M ∑N i

where Ni is the number of molecules of the type ith with molecular mass Mi.

(B) Weight average molecular mass :

If m1, m2, m3…… are the masses of species with molecular masses M1, M2, M3…..
respectively, then the weight average molecular mass is

̅ w = m1M1+m2M2+m3M3
M or ̅ w = ∑(mi Mi )
M
m +m +m
1 2 3 ∑N i

∑(Ni M2i )
But mi = Ni Mi , so that Mw = ∑(Ni Mi )

Where Ni is the number of molecules of mass Mi.

Poly dispersity index : The ratio of weight average molecular mass to the number
average molecular mass is called poly diversity index, PDI.
̅w
M
PDI = ̅n
M

This gives an idea about the homogeneity of a polymer.

For natural polymers, PDI is usually unity and therefore, natural polymers are
monodisperse. For synthetic polymers, the PDI is greater than one and therefore M
̅w
is greater than M
̅ n.

The number average molecular mass, M

̅ n is measured on the basis of colligative
properties like osmotic pressure. On the other hand, the weight average molecular
mass, M̅ w is determined with the help of methods like ultra centrifugation,
sedimentation etc.

Some Important Polymers :

1. Polyolefins 2. Rubber 3. Teflon

4. Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) 5. Nylon 6. Formaldehyde Resins

7. Terylene 8. Cellulose

1. Polyolefins : These are generally obtained from ethylene or its derivatives. The
polymerization normally takes place at a temperature between 473–673 K under
high pressure and in the presence of traces of oxygen.

(i) Polyethylene or Polyethene : It is a polymer of ethylene. It is manufactured by

heating pure ethylene to 465-485 K under high pressure (1500 – 2000 atm) in the
presence of traces of oxygen (0.03 to 0.1%).

465− 485 K
nCH2 = CH2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
High pressure
→ ( −CH2 − CH2 − )n
Ethylene Polyethylene

It is a whitish, translucent polymer of moderate strength and high toughness.

Uses : Its major uses are as packing films, pipes, containers, laboratory apparatus,
bottles, buckets, toys, mould articles and electrical insulators.

It may be noted that these days two types of polythene are used which have widely
different properties. These are, low density polythene (LDPE) and high density
polythene (HDPE).

The low density polythene is prepared as discussed above. It consists of highly

branched chain molecules. Due to branching, the polythene molecules do not pack
well and therefore, it has low density (0.92 g/cm3) and low melting point (384 K). Low
density polythene is transparent of moderate tensile strength and high toughness. It
is mainly used for.

• As a packing material in the form of thin plastic film bags.

• For insulating wires and cables.

• In the manufactures of pipes, toys, bottles, etc.

On the other hand, high density polythene is prepared by heating ethylene at about
333-343 K under a pressure of 6–7 atm in the presence of a catalyst such as
triethylaluminium and titatnium tetrachloride (known as Zeigler Natta catalyst).

333−343 K. 6 −7 atm
nCH2 = CH2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Zeigler Natta catalyst
→ ( −CH2 − CH2 − )n
Polyethylene

This polymer consists of linear chains and therefore, the molecules can get closely
packed in space. It has, therefore, high density (0.97 g/cm3), and higher melting point
(403 K). It is quite harder, tougher and has greater tensile strength than low density
polythene.

It is used in the manufacture of containers, buckets, tubes, pipes, house wears etc.

(ii) Polypropylene or Polypropene : The monomer unit is propylene. It is

manufactured by passing propylene through hexane (an inert solvent) containing
Zeigler Natta catalyst (a mixture of triethylaluminium and titanium tetrachloride).

− CH − CH2 −
 
nCH3 − CH = CH2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→  | Zeigler

Natta catalyst
Pr opylene
 CH3 
 n

It is harder and stronger than polyethylene.

Uses :

• For packing of textiles and foods,

• For manufacturing liners of bags, lining material for TV cabinets and refrigerators,

• For making ropes, fibres, heat shrinkable wraps for records and other articles.

• For making automobile mouldings, seat covers, carpet fibres etc.

(iii) Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or Orlon :

It is a polymerized product of vinyl cyanide (acrylonitrile).

 − CH2 − CH −

nH2C = CH − CN ⎯⎯→  | 
Vinyl cyanide
(Acrylonitrile)  CN 
 n
Polyacrylonitrile

Vinyl cyanide can be prepared by treating acetylene with HCN in the presence of
Ba(CN)2
Ba(CN)2
HC CH + HCN → H2 C = CH − CN
Vinyl cyanide

It is a hard and high melting substance. It is also known as acrilon or orlon.

Uses :

• For making blankets, sweaters, bathing suits, etc.

• For making synthetic carpets.

2. Rubber : It is of two types, viz. Natural rubber and Synthetic rubber.

• Natural Rubber : It is an addition polymer of isoprene (i.e. 2-Methyl -1, 3-

butadiene). It is manufactured from latex, a colloidal solution of rubber particles
in water, obtained by making incisions in the bark of rubber trees found in tropical
and sub-tropical countries.

   
 CH3   CH3 
 |  ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Polymerisation  | 
→
 CH2 = C − CH = CH2   CH2 = C − CH = CH2 
   
n 
   n
Isoprene Polyisoprene

Rubber has an average chain length of 5000 monomer units of isoprene. Since each
repeating units in polyisoprene contains a double bond, it may have either cis-or a
trans-orientation. Natural rubber has cis-stereochemistry while gutta percha,
obtained by free radical polymerisation of isoprene, has trans-configuration.

Properties :

1. It has remarkable elasticity but is sticky in nature.

2. It undergoes long range reversible extension even under relatively small applied
force.
3. It has weak intermolecular forces and occasional cross-linking. With no highly
polar substituents, intermolecular attraction is largely limited to van der Waal's
forces. But these are weak because of all cis-configuration about the double bond.

4. The trans-configuration permits highly regular zig-zags that fit together well while
the cis-configuration does not.

5. The trans-configuration is highly crystalline and non-elastic.

• Vulcanized Rubber :

Natural rubber is soft and tacky (sticky) and becomes even more so at high
temperature and brittle at low temperatures. It has a large water absorption
capacity, low tensile strength and resistance to abrasion. It is also not resistant to
the action of organic solvents and is also easily attacked by oxidising agents. These
disadvantages are removed by ‘VULCANISATION’ which involves addition of
sulphur to rubber and heating the mixture at 373-415 K. The vulcanized rubber
thus obtained has excellent elasticity, low water absorption tendency and resistant
to the action of organic solvents and oxidising agents. During vulcanization,
sulphur bridges or cross-links between polymeric chains are introduced through
their relative allylic positions.

These crosslinks make rubber hard and stronger and remove the tackiness of natural
rubber since the individual chains cannot slip past each other due to sulphur bridges.
Thus rubber can be stretched only to a certain extent and hydrocarbon chains have
the tendency to regain their shape when tension is removed.
• Synthetic Rubber :

To improve the qualities of natural rubber and to meet the ever increasing
demands of mankind, a number of forms of synthetic rubber have been prepared.

(i) Cis-Polybutadiene : This polymer has properties similar to those of natural rubber
and can also be vulcanised in the same way. It is prepared by the polymerisation
of 1,3–butadiene in the presence of Zeigler-Natta catalyst [i.e., a mixture of
(C2H5)3Al and TiCl4].

(ii) Buna Rubbers : Butadiene polymerises in the presence of sodium to give a rubber
substitute viz. BuNa. It is of two types :

(a) Buna-N or GRA: It is synthetic rubber obtained by co-polymerisation of one part

of acryl nitrite and two pans of butadiene.

It is more rigid responds less to heat and very resistant to swelling action of petrol,
oils and other organic solvents.

(b) Buna-S or GRS : It is a copolymer of three moles of butadiene and one mole of
styrene and is an elastomer.

It is obtained as a result of free radical co-polymerisation of its monomers.

It is generally compounded with carbon black and vulcanised with sulphur. It is

extremely resistant to wear and tear and find use in the manufacture of tyres and
other mechanical rubber goods.

(iii) Neoprene : It is a polymer of chloroprene and is obtained by free radical

polymerisation of chloroprene.
 It is an excellent rubber like material. It is a thermoplastic and need not to be
vulcanised. It is superior to natural rubber as it is resistant to the reaction of air,
heat, light, chemicals, alkalies and acids below 50% strength. It is used for making
transmission belts, printing rolls and flexible tubing employed for conveyance of
oil and petrol.

3. Teflon : It is also called polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). It is a polymer of

tetrafluoro ethylene (F2C = CF2) which on polymerisation gives Teflon.

O
n(CF2 = CF2 ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2
870 −102K
→ −(CF2 − CF2−)n
Tetrafluoroethylene Polytetrafluoroethylene
or Teflon

It is thermoplastic polymer with a high softening point (600 K). It is very tough and
difficult to work. It is inert to most chemicals except fluorine and molten alkali
metals. It withstands high temperatures. Its electrical properties make it an ideal
insulating material for high frequency installation.

Due to its chemical inertness and high thermal stability, it is used in making non
stick utensils. For this purpose, a thin layer of Teflon is coated on the inner side of
the vessel. It is also used for making gaskets, pump packings, valves, seals, non-
lubricated bearings, filter cloth, etc.

4. Poly Vinyl Chloride : It is commonly named as PVC. It's starting material is vinyl
chloride (CH2 = CH – Cl). It is prepared by the polymerisation of vinyl chloride in
presence of peroxides.

PVC is by and large a linear polymer, colourless and thermoplastic in nature and having
a chloride content of about 56.8%. The polymer is thermally unstable and extensive
heating transforms it into a dark coloured residue resembling polyacetyline and
liberating HCl as the volatile. It is insoluble in all hydrocarbons as events. It possesses
flame retardation and self extinguishing characteristics.

PVC is a pliable (easily moulded) polymer and thus has a wide range of applications.
(i) When plasticised with high boiling esters such as di-n-butylphthalte, it is used for
making raincoats, hand bags. plastic dolls, etc.

(ii) It is a good electrical insulator and hence is used for coating wires, cables and
other electrical goods.

(iii) It is also used in making ; gramophone records and hose pipes.

5. Nylon : These are polymers having amide linkage and are known as polyamides.
These are prepared by the condensation polymerization of dibasic acid with
diamines or their equivalents.

(i) Nylon-6, 6 : It is a polymer resin. It is condensation polymer formed by reaction

between adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine at 525 K under pressure. As both
monomer units consist of 6 carbon atoms, so it is known as nylon-66.

It is a thermoplastic polymer when extruded above its melting point (536 K)

through spinneret, it gives nylon fibre which is extremely tough and resistant to
friction. It possesses greater tensile strength, elasticity and lusture than any natural
fibre. It is chemically inert and is fabricated into sheet. bristles and textile fibres.

(ii) Nylon-6,10 : It is another type of nylon, obtained by the condensation of

hexamethylenediamine and sebacic acid, a dibasic acid containing ten carbon
atoms.

It is tough, elastic and has high tensible strength. It is used in the manufacture of
carpets. textile fibres and bristles for brushes.

(iii) Nylon-6 : It is also called Perlon-L. It is manufactured by prolonged heating of

caprolactum. having amino group at one end and a carboxyl group at the other,
at 530-540 K.
The fibres of nylon-6 are obtained when molten polymer is forced through a spinneret
and the fibres formed are cooled by the stream of air. It is used in the manufacture of
tyre cords, fabric and mountaineering ropes.

6. Formaldehyde Resins : These include polymers like Bakelite and Melamine

polymers.

(i) Phenol formaldehyde resins (Bakelite) : It is a condensation polymer and is

obtained from phenol and formaldehyde in the presence of basic catalyst.

The condensation of o-hydroxybenzyl alcohol or p-hydroxy benzyl alcohol gives a

linear polymer.

The ortho and para substituted phenols can undergo polymerization to produce a
cross-linked polymer known as bakelite.
Uses :

Soft bakelites with low degree of polymerization are used for making glue for binding
laminated wooden planks and in varnishes. High degree polymerization gives hard
bakelites which are used for making combs, fountain pens, barrels, electrical goods,
formica table tops and many other products.

(ii) Melamine formaldehyde resin: It is a polymer formed by the condensation of

melamine which is a heterocyclic diamine with formaldehyde. The polymerization
occurs as

7. Terylene : It is a condensation polymer which is known as polyester. Terylene is a

polymer of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. It is known as terylene or Dacron.

It is a very strong fibre and is used for making cloth by mixing with cotton,
magnetic recording tapes, etc.

An important polymer of polyesters class is glyptal. Glyptal is a polymer of

ethylene glycol with phthalic acid.
It was commonly used in manufacture of paints, lacquers, building materials such as
asbestoss, cement, etc.

Uses :

These films are suitable in electrical applications and packaging and as magnetic
recording tapes. The fibre is made by a melt spinning process. Poly ethylene
terephthalate is the most important synthetic fiber to have found widespread textile
applications either alone or more commonly as different blends with cotton or wool.
The fibre is widely known as Terylene or Dacron. The polyester fibres possess good
crease resistance and wash and wear properties. A sizable fraction of the polyester
fibre is used as the reinforcing cord in the tyre and related industry.

8. Cellulose : Cellulose is the most abundant constituent of the vegetables or plant

kingdom. More than 50% of all the living matter is cellulose. It is the chief structural
material of cell walls of all plants. It is also the chief component of wood (45 – 50%
cellulose), cotton (90 – 95% cellulose), etc. The molecular mass of cellulose varies
from 50,000 to 500,000 suggesting thereby that cellulose may contain 300-3000
glucose units.

Cellulose is a non-reducing sugar since it does not reduce Tollen's reagent or

Fehling's solution. It also does not form an osazone and is not fermented by yeast.
It also does not undergo hydrolysis easily.

Types of Polymers of Cellulose :

(i) Cellulose Nitrate : Cellulose nitrate is the oldest cellulosic or cellulose derivative
known and it is the only inorganic ester of cellulose of commercial importance.
Nitration of cellulose is carried out by using a mixture of HNO3 and H2SO4 over a
specific time period under controlled conditions of temperature and mixed acid
composition. The transformation of cellulose (R – Cell – OH) into the nitrate may
be written as :

R – Cell –OH + HO – NO2 → R – Cell – ONO2 + H2O

Cellulose nitrates for plastics and coating (lacquer) applications have nitrogen
(Nitrogen) content in the range of 11.5 – 12.2%. They are available in a large number
of viscosity grades and they are soluble in esters, ketones, ether alcohol mixture and
glycol ethers. Cellulose nitrates with 10.9 – 11.2% nitrogen content find use in
fiexographic inks, lacquer coatings for paper, foils. For plastics application cellulose
nitrate is invariably plasticized with nearly 25% by weight of camphor. The camphor
plasticized product is known as celluloid.

(ii) Cellulose Acetate : The most important organic ester of cellulose is cellulose
acetate. Cellulose acetate is prepared by acylation of cellulose using a mixture of
acetic anhydride and glacial acetic acid as the acetylating agent under a controlled
condition. Small proportion of H2SO4 is used as catalyst.

A major outlet of cellulose acetate is in the area of sheets, films and membranes.
its exceptional clarity makes it suited for photographic films. Injection moulded
items include tooth brush handles, combs, etc. Films are useful in packaging and
wrapping. The toughness, low flammability (compared to cellulose nitrate), good
clarity are advantageous. On the other hand its high water absorption, poor
solvent and chemical resistance and limited heat resistance and dimensional
stability are its limitations.

Mixed organic esters of cellulose also have been developed commercially. The
most important mixed esters are cellulose acetate butyrate and cellulose acetate
propionate. Cellulose acetate butyrate is more suitable than cellulose acetate for
movie films. Its excellent appearance and clarity, toughness and ease of
mouldability are of special advantage. The mixed ester is used in the making of
automobile parts, tool handles, toys, telephone housing and pipes.

Biodegradable Polymers :

A large number of polymers are quite resistant to the environmental degradation

processes and are thus responsible for the accumulation of polymeric solid waste
materials. These solid wastes cause acute environmental problems and remain
undegraded for quite a long time. In view of the general awareness and concern for
the problems created by the polymeric solid wastes, certain new biodegradable
synthetic polymers have been designed and developed. These polymers contain
functional groups similar to the functional groups present in biopolymers.

Aliphatic polyesters are one of the important classes of biodegradable poylmers. Some
examples are given below :
(A) Poly -hydroxybutyrate-co--hydroxy valerate (PHBV) :

It is obtained by the copolymerisation of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid. PHBV is used in

speciality packaging, orthopaedic devices and in controlled release of drugs. PHBV
undergoes bacterial degradation in the environment.

(B) Nylon-2-nylon-6 : It is an alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine (H2N–

CH2–COOH) and amino caproic add [H2N(CH2)5COON] and it is also
biodegradable polymer.

Solved Example (To be discussed)

Question: The partial structure of neoprene, a polymer is given below. Identify the
monomer unit. L2

Solution:

Question: Classify the following as addition and condensation polymer L3

Polymers : Terylene, Bakelite, polyvinyl chloride, polythene

Solution:

Addition polymer : Polyvinyl chloride, polythene

Condensation polymer : Bakelite, terylene

Question: What is the difference between Buna-N and Buna-S L3

Solution:
Buna-N → Copolymer of 1, 3-butadine and acrylnitride

Buna-S → Copolymer of 1, 3-butadiene and styrene

Question: Arrange the following in the increasing order of their intermolecular forces
L3

Nylon-6, Neoprene, Polyvinyl Chloride

(I) (II) (III)
Solution:

II < III < I

Solved Example (To be solved)

Question: Write down the heterogenous catalyst involved in the polymerization of

ethylene. L3

Solution:

Ziegler Natta catalyst. (R3Al + TiCl4)

Question: Match the chemical substances in Column-I with type of polymers/type of

bonds in Column-II.

Column-I Column-II
(a) cellulose (p) Natural polymer
(b) Nylon-6,6 (q) Synthetic polymer
(c) protein (r) Amide linkage
(d) sucrose (s) Glycoside linkage
Solution:

(a-p,s); (b-q,r); (c-p,r); (d-s)

Question: L2

Monomer of given polymer

(a) 2-Methypropene (b) Styrene

(c) Propylene (d) Ethene

Solution: (a)

LECTURE-10

Vitamins

It has been observed that certain organic compounds are required in small amounts
in our diet but their deficiency causes specific diseases. These compounds are called
vitamins. Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesized in our body but plants can
synthesis almost all of them, so they are considered as essential food factors. However,
the bacteria of the gut can produce some of the vitamins required buy us. All the
vitamins are generally available in our diet. Different vitamins belong to various
chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the basis of structure. They are
generally regarded as organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to
perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and
health of the organism. Vitamins are designated by alphabets A, B, C, D, etc. Some of
them are further named as sub-groups e.g. B1, B2, B6, B12, etc. Excess of vitamins is also
harmful and vitamin pills should not be taken without the advice of doctor.

The term “Vitamin” was coined from the word vital + amine since the earlier
identified compounds had amino groups. Later work showed that most of them did
not contain amino group, so the letter ‘e’ was dropped and the term vitamin is used
these days.

Classification of Vitamins
Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.

(i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in
water are kept in this group. These are vitamins A, D, E and K. They are stored in
liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.

(ii) Water soluble vitamins : B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water so
they are grouped together. Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in
diet because they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except
vitamin B12) in our body.

Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by their deficiency
are listed in Table.

Table : Some important Vitamins, their Sources and their Deficiency Diseases

S. No. Name of Vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases

1. Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, Xerophthalmia
butter and milk (hardening of cornea of
eye)
Night blindness
2. Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of
(Thiamine) vegetables and appetite. retarded
cereals growth)
3. Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, Cheilosis (fissuring at
(Riboflavin) liver, kidney corners of mouth and
lips) digestive disorders
and burning sensation
of the skin.
4. Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk egg yolk, Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
5. Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(Ascorbic acid) and green leafy
vegetables
6. Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(Ascorbic acid) and green leafy
vegetables
7. Vitamin D Exposure to Rickets (bone
sunlight, fish and deformities in children)
egg yolk and osteomalacia (soft
 bones and joint pain in
adults)
8. Vitamin E Vegetable oils like Increased fragility of
wheat germ oil, RBCs and muscular
sunflower oil, etc weakness
9. Vitamin K Green leafy Increased blood clotting
vegetables time

Nucleic Fluids

Every generation of each and every species resembles its ancestors in many ways. How
are these characteristics transmitted from one generation to the next? It has been
observed that nucleus of a living cell is responsible for this transmission of inherent
characters, also called heredity. The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for
heredity, are called chromosomes which are made up proteins and another type of
biomolecules called nuclei acids. These are mainly of two types, the deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of
nucleotides, so they are also called polynucleotides.

Chemical Composition of Nucleic Acids

Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and
nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds (called bases). In DNA molecules, the
sugar moiety is -D-2-deoxyribose whereas in RNA molecule, tis is -D-ribose.

DNA contains four bases viz. adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T).
RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases are same as in DNA but the fourth
one is uracil (U).
Structure of Nucleic Acids

A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1’ position of sugar is known as

nucleoside. In nucleosides, the sugar carbons are numbered as 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. in order
to distinguish these from the bases (Fig. below). When nucleoside is linked to
phosphoric acid at 5’-postion of sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide (Fig. below).

Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between 5’ and 3’ carbon

atoms of the pentose sugar. The formation of a typical dinucleotide is shown in Fig.
A simplified version of nucleic acid chain is as shown below.

Information regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the chain of a nucleic acid is

called its primary structure. Nucleic acids have a secondary structure also. James
Watson and Francis Crick gave a double stand helix structure for DNA (Fig. below). Two
nucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together by hydrogen bonds
between pairs of bases. The two strands are complementary to each other because the
hydrogen bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases. Adenine forms hydrogen
bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds with guanine.
Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids

DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve of genetic
information . DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of different
species of organisms over millions of years. A DNA molecule is capable of self
duplication during cell division and identical DNA strands are transferred to daughter
cells. Another important function of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell.
Actually, the proteins are synthesised by various RNA molecules in the cell but he
message for the synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA.

Solved Example (To be discussed)

Question: which of the following is a vitamin – L2

(a) Glucose (b) Keratin

(c) Maltose (d) Riboflavin

Solution: (d)

Question: Vitamin B6 is known as L2

(a) Pyridoxine(b) Thiamine

(c) Tocopherol (d) Riboflavin

Solution: (a)

Question: Vitamin D is called – L2

(a) Ascorbic acid (b) Calciferol or ergocalciferol

(c) Thiamine (d) Riboflavin

Solution: (b)

Solved Example (To be solved)

Question: Nervousness anaemia is caused by the deficiency of vitamin L2

(a) B1 (b) B2

(c) B6 (d) B12

Solution: (c)

Question: Which one of the following vitamin contains a metal atom? L2

(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin B2

(c) Vitamin B6 (d) Vitamin B12

Solution: (d)

Question: The sugar present in DNA is: L2

(a) Glucose (b) Deoxyribose

(c) Ribose (d) Fructose

Solution: (b)

Question: Beri-beri si caused due to: L2

(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin B

(c) Vitamin C (d) Vitamin D

Solution: (b)