SPRING

– is an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded and to recover its original shape when the load is
removed.

Maximum Shear stress induced in the wire ( considering the torsional and direct shear stresses )

Illustration:

Ss max = St + SS
T F
= +
ZP A
T F
= +
J/c π dW2/4
F ( Dm/2 ) F
= +
p dW4/32 p dW2/4

dW/2

F ( Dm/2 ) F
= +
p dW3/16 p dW2/4

8 F Dm dW
= 1+
p dW3 2 Dm

8 F Dm 1
= 1+
p dW3 2 ( Dm/dW )

8 F Dm 0.5 8 KS F Dm 8 KS F C
Ss max = 1+ = =
p dW3 C p dW3 p dW2

[1]
As the wire is coiled, the rotation of the wire on the inner side of the coil occurs over a shorter distance than
rotation at the outer side of the coil. This means the shear stress in the wire at the inner side of the coil must
be greater than that at the outside of the coil. Two factors have been proposed to include the effects due to the
curvature of the coil, torsional and transverse shear stresses.

Wahl's factor Bergsträsser's factor

4C–1 0.615 4C+2

KW = + KB =
4C–4 C 4C–3

Note:
However, these stress concentration factors are commonly used in different countries, such as Wahl's
factor in Japan or US and Bergsträsser's factor in Europe. The results from using these two methods
usually differ by less than 1%.

The Wahl’s factor ( KW ) or Bergstrasser’s factor ( KB ) may be considered as product of two sub-factors, KS
and KC, such that

KW = KC KS KB = KC KS

stress concentration factor to care for the torsional and transverse shear effect
stress concentration factor caused by the curvature of the coil

KS = shear stress concentration factor = ( 1 + 0.5/C )

KC = 1 when torsional stresses only are significant and made of ductile material ( i,e. the spring
behaves essentially as a torsion bar )

Permissible Shear stress induced in the wire ( considering the torsional stress only )
* for round wire
8 F Dm 8FC
St = =
π dW3 π dW2

Maximum Shear stress induced in the wire ( considering the stresses due to torsional / direct shear
/ curvature of the coil )
* for round wire
8 KW F Dm 8 KW F C
Ss max = =
p dw3 p dw2

where:
T = torsional load
F = axial load ( force ) applied to a spring that causes a deflection
DO = outside ( maximum ) diameter of coil spring
Di = inside ( minimum ) diameter of coil spring
Dm = mean diameter of the coil spring = 2 Rm = DO – dw = Di + dw
dW = wire diameter = d

* spring index ( C ) – is the ratio of the mean diameter to the wire diameter in a coil spring.

Dm DO – dW Di + dW
C= = =
dW dW dW
Note:
The preferred index range is 4 to 12. Helical compression springs with high indexes ( more than
12 ) may require special packaging and the coils may slip over one another ( or buckle ) if loaded
to solid. Springs with indexes lower than 4 are difficult to form or manufacture.
[2]
 To simplify computation, the value of K ( or KW ) may be taken from the curve shown below:

Total coils ( n ) – the number of coils or turns in the spring.

Active or Effective coils ( nC ) – the number of coils which actually deform when the spring is loaded, as opposed to
the inactive turns at each end which are in contact with the spring seat or base.
Pitch ( P ) – the distance from center to center of the wire in adjacent active coils.
wire diameter ( dW or d ) – the diameter of the wire that is wound into a helix.
Free length ( Lf ) – is the length of the spring in the free or unloaded condition.

Compressed length – Solid length LC – LS

coil clearance = =
Active or Effective coils nC

[3]
Coil or Pitch Angle ( α ) – the angle between the coils and the base of the spring.

Illustration:

P
α = tan - 1 usual range: 40 120
π Dm

Effective wire length:

L = p Dm nC

Angle of twist ( torsional deflection ) of the coiled wire

TL F ( Dm/2 ) ( p Dm nC ) 16 F Dm2 nC 16 F Dm2 nC 16 F C2 nC

θ= = = = =
JG p dW4 dw2 dW2 G dw4 G dW2 G
G
32
32
Deflection ( deformation ) of the coil spring

dCS
θ=
Rm

dCS 16 F C2 nC
=
Rm dW2 G

2 dCS 16 F C2 nC
=
Dm dW2 G

8 F C2 Dm nC
dCS =
dW ( dW ) G

8 F C3 nC 8 F Dm3 nC
dCS = =
dW G dW4 G

Stiffness / Spring constant / Spring rate / Spring modulus / Spring scale / Spring gradient

Stiffness – is the extent to which a coil spring resists deformation in response to an applied force.
– is the ratio of load to deflection.

F G dW
k= =
d 8 C3 nC

where:
d = dCS ( when neglecting bending moment caused by direct shear stress,
hence; deflection could be taken almost entirely to torsion in the wire )
d = lengthening ( or shortening ) of coil spring due to load
G = shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity or transverse modulus
for steel: 11.5 x 10 6 psi ( 11,500 ksi ) or sometimes 12 x10 6 psi
nC = number of active ( or effective ) coils that are used in supporting the load
[4]
 Compression spring
Illustration:
F
Fs = Shut load

Clash Allowance

Clash Allowance ( CA ) = ( solid deflection – working deflection )/working deflection = ( dS – dW )/dW

Fo
Fi

Free length ( Lf ) – is the length of the spring in the free or unloaded condition.
Compressed length ( LC ) – is the working ( or compressed ) length when maximum working load is applied.
Solid length ( LS ) – when the compression spring is compressed until the coils come in contact with each other, then
the spring is said to be solid. The solid length of a spring is the product of total number of coils
and the diameter of the wire.

Spring rate
k = ( Fo – Fi )/( Li – Lc )

Spring free length

Lf = Li + ( Fi/k )

where:
Fo = operating or maximum working force
Lc = operating or compressed or working lengt
Fi = installed force
Li = installed length
Buckling

If Lf/Dm > 5.2 ( Machine Design by Mott ) Buckling may occur unless the compression spring is properly guided. The
critical axial load that will cause buckling can be approximated by

Fcr = k Lf KL

where:
k = spring rate
Lf = free length of the spring
KL = a factor depending on the ratio Lf/Dm ( slenderness factor )
[5]
 Spring Systems

A. Series System
Illustration:

F
ke =
δ

where:
d = d1 + d2 + d3

F1 F2 F3 F F F
d = + + = + +
k1 k2 k3 k1 k2 k3

1 1 1
d =F + +
k1 k2 k3

since:
F = F1 = F2 = F3

F1 F2 F3
k1 = ; k2 = ; k3 =
d1 d2 d3

Equivalent spring constant for this system

1 F
ke = =
1 1 1 δ
+ +
k1 k2 k3

[6]
B. Parallel System
Illustration:

F
ke =
δ

where:
F = F1 + F2 + F3 = k1 d1 + k2 d2 + k3 d3 = δ ( k1 + k2 + k3 )
since:
d = d1 = d 2 = d 3
F1 F2 F3
k1 = ; k2 = ; k3 =
d1 d2 d3
Equivalent spring constant for this system
F
ke = ( k1 + k2 + k3 ) =
d

[7]
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