Circuit Theory I

(EEE2101)

Prof. Dr. Bülent ULUĞ

 DEFINATIONS
Electric Circuits: A mathematical model that approximates the behaviour of an actual system such as Electrical
power system, Communication syst., Computer Syst., Control Syst., etc.

Circuit Theory: Study of electric charges

Assumptions used in circuit theory

1- Electrical effects happen instaneously throughout a system (Electrical signals travel nearly at a speed of
light)
2-Net charge on every component in the system is always zero (No charge accumulation is allowed on a
component over the working period)

3- There is no magnetic coupling between the components in a system.

Electric Charge: One of the basic atomic particles of matter. It is unipolar and measured in Coulombs(C).

1 C of charge requires 6.24x1018 electrons or 1 electron charge e=-1.602x10-19 C

Conservation of Charge: Charges can not be created but only transfered which results electrical current. Therefore,

Current is created as result of directional flow of electrons and defined as the rate of low of charge through a point with respect to
time. It is measured in Amperes (A).

Charge transfered between t=t0 and t1 is given by q=𝑖𝑑𝑡 (i=dq/dt) where i is the current in Amperes (A).
Seperation of charges create an electric force is called Voltage

Direct Current (DC): Current retains its polarity with time though its magnutitude could vary

Alternating Current (AC): The Current whose polarity changes with time
Potential Difference:

Consider the task of moving a positive test charge within a uniform electric field (E) from
location A to location B as shown in the diagram at the right. In moving the charge
against the electric field from location A to location B, work will have to be done on
the charge by an external force (F=-qE). The work done on the charge changes its potential
energy to a higher value; and the amount of work that is done is equal to the change
in the potential energy. As a result of this change in potential energy,
there is also a difference in electric potential between locations A and B.
This difference in electric potential is represented by the symbol ΔV and is formally referred to as the electric potential
difference.
By definition, the electric potential difference is the difference in electric potential between the final and the initial location
when work is done upon a charge to change its potential energy.
In equation form, the electric potential difference is

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊 𝑑𝑊
V=Va-Vb= = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑞

The standard metric unit on electric potential difference is the volt, abbreviated V (Volt=Joule/Coulomb) and named in honour
of Alessandro Volta
One Volt is equivalent to one Joule per Coulomb.

If the electric potential difference between two locations is 1 volt, then one Coulomb of charge
will gain 1 joule of potential energy when moved between those two locations.

If the electric potential difference between two locations is 3 volts, then one coulomb of charge will gain 3 joules of
potential energy when moved between those two locations.

And finally, if the electric potential difference between two locations is 12 volts, then one coulomb of charge will gain
12 joules of potential energy when moved between those two locations.

Because electric potential difference is expressed in units of volts, it is sometimes referred to as the voltage.
Potential difference (voltage) pushes charge in one direction. Polarity (- or + ) is used to indicate which direction
the charge is being pushed.

Ideal basic circuit element

- Has only 2 terminals
- Can be described mathematically in terms of current and/or voltage
- Can not be divided into other elements

For the positive values of v and i, we may say that

-Voltage drops from terminal 1 to terminal 2.
-Voltage rises from terminal 2 to terminal 1.
-Positive charge flows from terminal 1 to terminal 2.
-Negative charge flows from terminal 2 to terminal 1.
There are 5 basic circuit elements.
1-Voltage sources
2- Current sources,
3- Resistors,
4- Capacitors
5- Inductors

Passive Sign Convention (PSC)

When the reference direction of the current in an element is in the direction of reference voltage drop acros the
element (in other words when current enters through the positive terminal of that element), PSC is satisfied and
positive sign is used in any expression that relates the voltage to current.

If PSC is satisfied If PSC is not satisfied

v=f(i) or i=g(v) v=-f(i) or i=-g(v)

Element absorbs power. P=v.i Element supplies power. P=-v.i

Power and Energy

Why they are important:

1-The output of an electrical system is tradationally expressed in terms of power and energy.
2- Almost all devices have limitations on the amount of power that they can handle.

Power is defined as the energy expending or absorbed per unit time. It is a measure of the rate of energy taken in
or taken out of the systems (P=dW/dt) and measured by Watts (W).

P= dW/dt= (dW/dq) . (dq/dt)=v.i

P is positive if the system absorbs power. If circuit elements supply power P then becames negative. The total
power of a system however must be zero, that is Pi=0

Absorbing Power= Supplying Power=

Energy:
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Measured in Joules (J)
𝑡 𝑡
W=‫=𝑡𝑑𝑝 𝑡׬‬±‫𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑡׬‬
0 𝑜

If the current and the voltage are constant then

𝑡
W=‫=𝑡𝑑𝑝 𝑡׬‬p(t-t0)
0

Units
Power, p, is in Watts
Energy, W, is in Joules
Current, i, is in Amperes
Voltage, v, is in Volts
1 Ws=1 J
1Wh=3600J
Circuit Elements

Electrical Source: A device capable of converting nonelectric energy to electric energy and vice versa. Such as
battery and dynamo which convers chemical and mechanical energies into electric energy, respectively.

Independent Sources
Sources which establish voltage or current in a circuit without relying on voltages or currents elswhere in the
circuit. Voltage and current supplied are specified alone by the independent source itself.

Symbol of Symbol of
Independent voltage source: Independent current source:

Dependent (controlled) Sources

Dependent sources establish a voltage or current whose value depends on the value of a voltage or current elsewhere
in the circuit.
Dependet Voltage sources:

Voltage Controlled Current Controlled

Dependent Current sources:

Voltage Controlled Current Controlled

All sources either independent or dependent are active circuit elements capable of generating electric energy but
regulate it.
Passive Circuit Elements such as resistors, capacitors and inductors, can not generate electric energy but help to
vary it.
Electrical Resistance and Ohm’s law
Resistance is the capacity of material to impede/resist the flow of electric charges/current. Measured in Ohm ().
Ohm’s law states that the potential drop (V) on a resistor (R) is proportional to the current (I) passing throug it as
V=I.R
Here I is in amperes, R is in Ohms and V is in Volts. Ohm’s law states us that
the relation between the voltage and the current is linear.

Polarity of the voltage droped on resistor is defined

by the direction of the current passing through it.

Resistance value of a cylindrical wire with a cross sectional area A (m2),

length l (m), and resistivity  (m) is given by R=  l/A
Inverse of resistance, 1/R, is known as conductance (G) and measured in siemens (s) or mho whereas the inverse of
resistivity (1/) is the conductivity () measured in (m)-1

Power dissipated in a resistor:

In terms of current p=i2.R, p=i2/G
In terms of voltage p=v2/R, p=v2.G
Example on Relating Current and Charge
Kirchhoff’ Voltage Law (KVL) states that algebraic sum of all voltages around any closed path in a circuit
equals ZERO (i=0).

Recomendation: Looping direction should be same for all

loops. Never have mixed looping directions.
Suggestion: Choose all looping directions as CLOCWISE

Convention: If the looping direction is from negative-to-

positive terminals then the sign should be «-». Otherwise the
sign is «+».

Path a -V1+V2+Va-Vb-V3=0
Path b -Va+V3+V5=0
Path c Vb-V4-Vc-V6-V5=0
Path d -Va-V1+V2-Vc+V7-Vd=0
Kirchhoff’ Current Law (KCL): It states that the algebraic sum of all currents at any node in a circuit equals
ZERO (ii=0)

Convention: The sign of a current entering the node is «-» and

wise versa.

Node a i1+i4-i2-i5=0
Node b i2+i3-i1-ib-ia=0
Node c ib-i3-i4-ic=0
Node d i5+ia+ic=0
Example: Find V0 using Kirchhoff’s, Ohm’s laws and the value of the dependent source for the circuit below.

Omh’law  V0=20io
KCL  i0=i +5i
KVL  500= 5i + 20io So i=4 A
io= 24 A V0=480 V
Simple Resistive Circuits
Objective: Reduce complex circuits into simpler equivalent circuits

Resistors in Series
Same current flows over the series-connected circuit elements .

If KVK is applied
Vs=isR1+isR2+isR3+isR4+isR5+isR6+isR7=is.Req  Req = σ7𝑖=1 𝑅𝑖
Resistors in Parallel

Parallel-connected circuit elements have tha same voltage across their therminals.

KCL states that is=i1+i2+i3+i4

Fron the Ohm’s law i1.R1=i2.R2=i3.R3=i4.R4= Vs
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
i1= , i2= , i3= , i4=
R1 R2 R3 R4

 is= Vs(
1
R1
+
1
R2
+
1
R3
+
1
R4
)

𝑖𝑠 1 1 1 1 1
= = + + +
V𝑠 R𝑒𝑞 R1 R2 R3 R4
1
= σ4𝑖=1 1/𝑅𝑖
R𝑒𝑞
Voltage Divider
Voltage divider is simply constracted by a two series resistors as shown in Figure.

𝑉𝑠
Vs=i.R1 + i.R2 or i=𝑅1+𝑅2

𝑅2
V2=Vs 𝑅1+𝑅2

If a load RL is added in parallel to R2 then the voltage V2 will be changed since R2 in above equation is replaced
𝑅2.𝑅𝐿
by REq = 𝑅2+𝑅𝐿 .

𝑉2 is now given by

𝑅𝐸𝑞
V2=Vs 𝑅1+𝑅𝐸𝑞

𝑅2
V2=Vs 𝑅
𝑅1[1+𝑅1]+𝑅2
𝐿
Current Divider


V=i1.R1 = i2.R2 i. 𝑅1.𝑅2 i1=is.
𝑅2
𝑅1+𝑅2 𝑅1+𝑅2

𝑅1
i2=is.
𝑅1+𝑅2

Voltage and Current Division-Generalized

𝑉 Generalized
𝑅𝐽 representation of
i1= VJ=i,RJ=V.
𝑅1+𝑅2+𝑅3+⋯….+𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝐸𝑞 voltage division

V=i.(R1//R2//R3//……..//Rn)=i.Req

𝑉 𝑅𝐸𝑞
iJ= = .i Generalized representation of current division
𝑅 𝑅
Measuring Voltage and Current
Voltmeter is used to measure voltage. It should be placed in parallel with the component whose voltage is
measured. An ideal voltmeter has an infinite equivalent resistance. Therefore it acts like an open-circuit
component and does not affect the circuit it is connected.

Ammeter is used to measure current. It should be connected in series with the component whose curren is
measured. An ideal ammeter has zero ohm equivalent resistance. Therefore it acts like a closed-circuit
component and does not affect the current flowing throug the component or the current values in other parts of
the circuit.

The values of R1 and R2 can be calculated by using the ammeter which measures the current flowing through
R1, and a voltmeter which measures the voltage across R2.

R1=(vs-vmeasured)/Imeasured ; R2= vmeasured/Imeasured

Note that the voltmeter and the ammeter can well be connected to the same component to measure the current
flowing through and the voltage on it.
In DC mode voltmeter and ammeter measure the average values. In AC mode, however, RMS
values are measured.
Measuring Resistance
There are many ways of measuring resistance one of which is The Wheatstone Bridge technique
explained here. It is an accurate method for resistance values betbeen 1  - 1M.

- R1, R2 and R3 are known.

- R3 is avariable resistor
- Rx is unknown.

Rx=(R2/R1).R3
Working Princible

Change R3 to get ig=0 which means the bridge is balanced. In this case from KCL
i1=i3 (1)
i2=ix. (2)

If ig=0 then va=vb

i1.R1=i2.R2 (3)
i3.R3=ix.Rx (4)

From (1), (2) and (4)

i1.R1=i2.Rx can be written. If it is divided side by side with (3) then we get

R3/R1=Rx/R2 or Rx=(R2/R1).R3

Note that a current iX flows through the component whose resistance value is measured. Therefore an omhmeter
should never be connected to a component while it is connected to circuit. It must be disconnected from the
circuit before the measurement is done. Otherwise ix would be different, and thus, the measured value of
resistance will not be the actual value.
4 Probe Technique
Delta () and Wye (Y) Equivalent Circuits

Sometimes simple series and parallel connection for resistors may not be enough to simplify the circuits. In some cases  to
Y or Y to  transformations would be useful. The two ways of representation can have eqivalent forms in either form.

RA=R1R2/(R1+R2+R3)

 RB=R2R3/(R1+R2+R3)

RC=R1R3/(R1+R2+R3)

Equivalent resistance between terminals AB

ReqAB=RA+RB=R2(R1+R3)/(R1+R2+R3)  RA=[(R1R2 + R2R3)/]-RB = R1+R2+R3
Equivalent resistance between the therminals BC
ReqBC=RB+RC=R3(R1+R2)/(R1+R2+R3)  RC=[(R1R3 + R2R3)/]-RB
Similarly eqivalent resistance between the terminals AC
ReqAC=RC+RA=R1(R3+R2)/(R1+R2+R3)  RA + RC = 2R2R3/ = 2RB  RB=R2R3/; RA=R1R2/; RC=R1R3/

RARB + RARC + RBRC =(R1R2R2R3 + R1R2R1R3 + R1R3R2R3)/()2 = R1R2R3(R1 + R2 + R3)/()2 =R1R2R3/

RARB + RARC + RBRC/RB= R1; RARB + RARC + RBRC/RC= R2; RARB + RARC + RBRC/RA= R3
Techniques of Circuit Analysis
KCL, KVL and Ohm’s law have been applied to analyze relatively simple resistive circuits by now. These
methods can still be applied to applied to analyze complicated circuits but they become cumbersome. Thus,
node-voltage and mesh-current medhods are introduce in this lecture.
In addition source transformations, Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits will be discussed.

Definations
Node: A point where two or more circuit elements join.
Essential node: A node where three or more circuit elements join.
Path: a trace of adjoining basic elements with no elements included more than once.
Branch: A path that connects two node.
Essential branch: A path which connects two nodes without passing through an essential node.
Loop: A path whose last node is the same as the starting node.
Mesh: A loop that does not enclose any other loops.
Planar circuits: A circuit that can be drawn on a plane with no crossing branches.
Nodes: a, b, c, d, e, f, g
Essential nodes: b, c, e, g
Branches: v1, v2, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, I
Essential branches: v1-R1, R2-R3, v2-R4, R5, R6, R7, I
Meshes: v1-R1- R5-R3-R2, R7-I, R5-R7-R6, v2-R2- R3-R6-R4

R1- R5-R6 and v2-R2 are paths but not loops since the first node is not the
last node. Similarly they are not essential branches because a,f and d are
not essential nodes.

v1-R1- R5-R6-R4-v2 is a loop but not a mesh since it enclose 2 loops.

I-R5-R6 is a loop but not a mesh since it enclose 2 loops.
Planar Circuits
Nonplanar circuit

can be redrawn on a plane with no crossing branches

Question is how many equations and which of them should be used to analyse the circuit.
Assumption: Circuit has «b» branches and have b unknown currents flow through those branches. Circuit has
«n» nodes. Thus,
- To find b unknowns one needs b independent equations.
- By applying KCL, n-1 independent equations can be generated (nth equation can be derived from n-1 equations
thus it can not be independent)
- Number of remaining equations is b-(n-1)
- b-(n-1) equations can be generated by applying KVL around b-(n-1) loops or meshes.
Node Voltage Method (Nodal Analysis):
Essential nodes of the circuits are used

Steps:
1- Redraw the circuit diagram so that no branches cross over.
2- Mark essential nodes and select one of them a reference node (Usually the one which has a direct
connection to «-» teminal of source is freferred)
3- Assign voltages V1, V2,……, Vn-1 to the remaing nodes referenced to the reference node

There is 3 essential nodes in this example. 1 of them is selected

as reference node. Remaining (3-1)=2 nodes are used for KCL
equations.

4- Apply KCL to each of n-1 nonreferenced nodes. Use Ohm’s law to Express the branch current in terms of
node voltages. For example:
For Node 1:
-(V2-V1)/2 + (V1-10)/1 + V1/5=0
For Node 2:
-2+ V2/10 + (V2-V1)/2 =0

Current directions shown in the figüre can be choosen different. In that case the signs in the above KCL
equations should be changed too.
5- Solve the equations to obtain unknown node voltages

V1=0,09 V V2=10,91 V

Let’s focuse on I0. Using its present direction we get

I0=(V1-10)/1=(9,09-10)/1=-0,91 A

«-» sign means that it actually flows from 10V source, opposite to the direction shown on the figüre. Thus
10V source SUPPLY electrical power.
Node Voltage Method and Dependent Sources

If the circuit contains dependent voltage or current sources, extra equations in relation to these sources should
be integrated into the node-voltage equations.

Example:

For node 1: -(20-V1)2 + V1/20 + (V1-V2)/5=0

For node 2: -(V1-V2)/5 + V2/10 + - (8i-V2)/2=0

Extra equation in relation to current controlled dependent voltage source is i=(V1-V2)/5

Now we have 3 equations for 3 unknowns. Thus one gets V1=16V, V2=10V, i=1,2A, P5=(1,2)2x5=7,2W

- Since V1(16V)<20V current flows from 20V supply to V1. Thus, 20V voltage source SUPPLY electrical
power.
- Since V2(10V)> 8i(9,6V) polarity of 8i dependent voltage source which CONSUME power must be
reversed.
 SpecialCases
Special Cases

Circuit with known node voltage

Example V1(100V)is already known. Therefore one node equation is enough

-5 + V2/50 + (V2-100)/10=0

V2=125V. Now all currents in all branches can be found.

Example:
V1 is known (50V)
For node 2: (V2-V1)/5 + V2/50 +i=0
For node 3: -i - 4 + V3/100=0
Extra equations: i=(V2-V1)/5 (1)
V3-V2=10i (2)
Sum of the equations for nodes 2 and 3
(V2-V1)/5 + V2/50 + V3/100 – 4=0 (3)

Now these 3 equations can be solved for 3 unknowns.

Supernode
Special Cases
Concept

If a voltage source is between 2 essential nodes, these 2 nodes can be conbined to form a supernode. Lets look at the
previous example from the supernode point of view.

There was a Since there was a dependent voltage source

between the nodes 2 and 3. Now If KCL is applied to
supernode

(V2-V1)/5 + V2/50 + V3/100 -4=0

Extra equation in relation to dependent source is

i=(V2-V1)/5

Supernode relation between nodes 2 and 3 is

V3=V2+10i

Using these three equations we find

V2=60V, V3=80V, i=2A (V1=50V was already given)

Mesh Current Method

Mesh is a loop that does not enclose any other loops. By using Mesh Current Method, neb-(nen-1) equations can be written
where neb and ne are the number of essential branches and the number of nodes, respectively.

For this circuit neb=7 and ne=4. The number of meshes is 4

Steps

1- Redrawn the circuit diagram so that no branches cross over.

2- Assign currents i1, i2, …..,im for each mesh.
3- Apply KVL to all meshes. use Ohm’s law.
4- Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
Example Find the currents ia, ib and ic as well as the powers supplied/dissipated by the power supplies for the
circuit diagram shown below.

KVL for each mesh

-40 +2ia + 8(ia-ib)=0

6ib + 6(ib-ic) + 8(ib-ia)=0
4ic + 20+ + 6(ic-ib)=0

After reorginizing these equations

10ia – 8ib =0

-8ia + 20ib +- 6ic=0

10 −8 0 𝑖𝑎 40 𝑖𝑎 = 5,6 𝐴
- 6ib + 10ic =-20  −8 20 −6 𝑖𝑏 = 0  𝑖𝑏 = 2𝐴
0 −6 10 𝑖𝑐 −20 𝑖𝑐 = −0,8 𝐴

Since ia>0 40 V voltage source SUPPLIES power. P40V=-40ia=-224W<0

since ic<0 its direction must be reversed. Once it is done ic current enters «-» terminal of 20 V voltage source
and thus it also SUPPLIES power. P20V=(-20V).(0,8 A)=-16W<0
Mesh Current Method and Dependent Sources

If the circuit contains dependent sources, apprepriate constrain equations (extra equations) should be integrated into the
mesh-current equations.

Example:
Find the currents i1, i2, i3 and the power dissipated on 4 resistor.

5(i1-i2) + 20(i1-i3) – 50=0

5(i2-i1) + i2 + 4(i2-i3)=0
20(i3-i1) + 4(i3-i2) + 15i
i=i1-i3 (extra equation )

After reorginizing the equations one has

25i1 - 5i2 - 20i3=50 25 −5 −20 𝑖1 50

𝑖2 = 26 𝐴
-5i1 +10i2 - 4i3=0  −5 10
−5 −4
−4 𝑖2 = 0
9 𝑖2 0
 𝑖3 = 28 𝐴 P4=(2 A)2.4 V=16W

-5i1 – 4i2 + 9i3=0 Note that the net current passing through resistor is i3-i2=28A-26A=2 A
Special Cases: A branch with current source

In this case an extra unknown, v, is added. Equations should be revised accordinly.

.

-100 + 3(ia-ib) + v + 6ia=0 (1)

10ib + 2(ib-ic) +3(ib-ia)=0 (2)
2(ic-ib) + 50 +4ic -v=0 (3)
ic-ia=5 (4)
By adding equations (1) and (3) v is eliminated

50=9ia – 5ib + 6ic (5)

Thus using equations (2), (4) and (5) (3 equations and 3 unknowns) It is found that

ia=1,75 A, ib=1,25 A, ic=6,75 A

Supermesh Concept:
Above problem solved using mesh current method. Supermesh concept could also be adopted. To do that the
circuit is redrawn without the current source as shown.

Then KVL is applied to the supermesh

-100 (3(ia-ib) + 2(ic-ib) + 50 +4ic + 6ia=0  50=9ia – 5ib + 6ic

This is the same as equation (5) in the previous page. Supermesh eliminates the need for introducing the
unknown valtage v.
Now if KVL is applied to mesh, b we get
10ib + 2(ib-ic) +3(ib-ia)=0 .

Writing down the relation between ia and ic, namely ic-ia=50, provides the 3rd equation needed to find the currents
Question of which method, the Node Voltage method or The Mesh Current Method, should be used is answered based on
the sturucture of the circuit.

Both methods can well be used for the analysis of the same circuit but one of them may result in fewer equations to handle
with.

If the circuit has supernodes, using NODE-VOLTAGE method will give fewer equations.
If the circuit has superneshes, use of MESH_CURRENT method will result in reduced number of equations.
Source Transformations

There is another simplifying technique for circuit analysis. In this method, the current source is in parallel with
a resistor R is replaced by a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R, or vice versa.

If parallel R is   or series R is 0 , then source transformation can not be applied.

Assume that RL is connected between terminals a and b.

Example: P6V=?
Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
Thevenin’s theoerem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source VTH in series with a resistor RTH where VTH is the open circuit voltage at the terminals and RTH is the
input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turn off.

How to find Thevenin’s Equivalent

Case 1: No dependent sources in the circuit

Step 1: Calculate the open circuit voltage Vab.

a, b terminals are open. So no current flow through 4 resistor. Thus vab=v1. Find v1 using node-voltage
equation.
(v1-25)25 + v1/20 – 3 =0  v1 =32V VTH =32 V
Step 2: Place a short circuit across a and b terminals, then calculate the resulting short circuit current
iSC to calculate RTH

(v1-25)/5 + v1/20 – 3 +v1/4 = 0  v1= 16V iSC= 16/4 = 4A RTH= VTH/iSC = 8

Result is

Alternative way to find RTH

1- Turn off all independent sources (Turning off a voltage source means short circuit its terminals, while
turning off a current source means open circuit its terminals)
2- Calculate equivalent resistance of the circuit.
 Req = (5//20) +4 = 4 + 5*20/(5 +25) =8 

Case 2: Dependent sources in the circuit.

Step 1: Same as the Case 1
Step 2: 1-Turn off all independent sources
2- Apply a voltage source v0 (usually v0=1 V) between terminals a and b. Calculate
RTH=v0/i0=1/i0
Example:
Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN
in paralel with a resistor RN

* Resistances of Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are EQUAL.

RN = RTH

IN can be calculated as IN = iSC =VTH/RTH (SC = Short Circuit)

Maximum Power Transfer

Maximum power transfer from the network to the load (RL) can be
calculated with the help of Thevenin’equivalent circuit

2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑑𝑃
P= i 2R L= 𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 RL value which satisfy 𝑑𝑅𝐿
= 0 maximizes P.

𝑑𝑃 2 𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 2 −2𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿

𝑑𝑅𝐿
=𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 4
=0

2
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 = 2𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿

𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻

*- When the load resistance RL equals the Thevenin Resistance RTH maximum power transfer occurs in the network.
Superposition

When a linear system is driven by more than one independent source, the total response is the sum of the
individual responces. That is, the voltage across (or the current through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltage across (the currents through) that element due to each independent source
acting alone.

Application of superposition principle involves below listed steps:

Step 1. Turn off all independent sources but one.
Step 2. Find the voltage(current) for examined element due to that source.
Step 3. Repeat step 1 and 2 for each independent sources.
Step 4. Sum the contributions due to all the independent sources (sum of values calculated in Step 2
for all independent sources) is the actual voltage(current) values for the examined element.

Superposition principle can not be applied for power. Why?

It should be reminded once again that:

- Turning off a voltage source means short circuting its terminals
- Turning off a current source means open circuiting its terminals.
Example: Find the currents i1, i2, i3 and i4.

1- Turn off 12 A current source while 120V voltage

source is on and find the currents, 𝑖𝑛′
2- Turn on 12A current source and turn off 120V voltage
source then find the currents, 𝑖𝑛′′
3- 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛′ + 𝑖𝑛′′ (n=1, 2, 3, 4)
KCL for v1
- 𝑖1′ + 𝑖2′ + 𝑖3′ = 0
𝑖1′ = (120-v1)/6 = 15A
𝑖2′ = v1/3 = 10A
𝑖3′ = 𝑖4′ = v1/(2 + 4) = 5A
v1= 30V [(2+4)//3 Req=2 . 6 and Req form a voltage
divider]
KCL for v3
- 𝑖1′′ + 𝑖2′′ + 𝑖3′′ = 0 i1 = 𝑖1′ + 𝑖1′′ = 15 + 2 = 17A
𝑖1′′ = (0-v3)/6 ; 𝑖2′′ = v3/3 ; 𝑖3′′ = (v3 - v4)/2 i2 = 𝑖2′ + 𝑖2′′ = 10 – 4 = 6A
KCL for v4 𝑖1′′ = (0-(-12))/6 = 2A i3 = 𝑖3′ + 𝑖3′′ = 5 + 6 = 11A
- 𝑖3′′ + 𝑖4′′ + 12 = 0 𝑖2′′ = -12/3= -4A i4 = 𝑖4′ + 𝑖4′′ = 5 - 6 = -1A
𝑖3′′ = (v3-v4)/2 ; 𝑖4′′ = v4/4 𝑖3′′ = (-12-(-24))/2 =6A v1-4, P1-6, P120V and P12A can then
v = -12V, v = -24V 𝑖 ′′ = -24/4 = -6A be calculated