Introduction

Spanish cave drawings from more than 15,000 years ago show humans with animal skins or furs wrapped around their feet. The body of a well-preserved ice-man nearly 5,000 years old wears leather foot coverings stuffed with straw. Shoes, in some form or another, have been around for a very long time. The evolution of foot coverings, from the sandal to presentday athletic shoes that are marvels of engineering, continues even today as we find new materials with which to cover our feet. Has the shoe really changed that much though? We are, in fact, still wearing sandals the oldest crafted foot covering known to us. Moccasins are still readily available in the form of the loafer. In fact, many of the shoes we wear today can be traced back to another era. The Cuban heel may have been named for the dance craze of the 1920s, but the shape can be seen long before that time. Platform soles, which are one of the most recognisable features of footwear in the 1970s and 1990s were handed down to us from 16th century chopines. Then, high soles were a necessity to keep the feet off of the dirty streets. Today, they are worn strictly for fashions sake. The poulaine, with its ridiculously long toes is not that different from the winkle-pickers worn in the 1960s. If one can deduce that basic shoe shapes have evolved only so much, it is necessary to discover why this has happened. It is surely not due to a lack of imagination the colours and materials of shoes today demonstrate that. Looking at shoes from different parts of the world, one can see undeniable similarities. While the Venetians were wearing the chopine, the Japanese balanced on high-soled wooden shoes called geta. Though the shape is slightly different, the idea remains the same. The Venetians had no contact with the Japanese, so it is not a case of imitation. Even the mystical Chinese practise of footbinding has been copied (though to a lesser extent) in our culture. Some European women and men of the past bound their feet with tape and squashed them into too-tight shoes. In fact, a survey from the early 1990s reported that 88 percent of American women wear shoes that are too small! As one examines footwear history, both in the West and in other parts of the world, the similarities are apparent. Though the shoemakers of the past never would have thought to pair a sandal with a platform sole, our shoe fashions of today are, for the most part, modernised adaptations of past styles.

The Construction of a Shoe

Over one hundred operations go into the construction of a shoe. The first and most important of these is the creation of the last. The last is a hand-carved wood or moulded plastic replica of the human foot. The last determines the contour of the arch and how evenly the wearers weight will be distributed throughout the foot. A different last is required for each shoe style and size to be produced. Before a shoe can be made, as many as thirty-five measurements are taken from a footprint to show the distribution of the body weight. The maker judges the symmetry of the toes, calibrates the girth of the instep and ball of the foot, and calculates the height of the big toe and the contour of the instep. He or she must also estimate how the foot will move inside the shoe. All of these ratios must be addressed without compromising the architectural beauty of the shoe design. For a heeled shoe, the maker visualises the heel height, than determines the size of the throat. Next the appropriate height of the shoes quarter is established. If it is too high it will rub the tendons, and if it is too low, the shoe will fail to grip the foot properly. Crucial to the fit of a shoe is the measurement of the shank curve, including the ball and instep. This is where the bodys weight falls when the foot is in motion.

Using the last as a guide, the pattern maker cuts out the shoe upper and lining. The edges are then bevelled to ensure a good fit and the pieces are then sewn together. Next, a toe box is constructed, the counter is added, and the leather is soaked so it will easily conform to the lines of the last. The upper is positioned on the last, tautly stretching it before nailing it tightly onto the last. The upper dries on the last for two weeks before the sole and the heel can be attached. The final steps are to trim the welt, pare the heel, burnish the sole and add the insole lining. Last the shoe is polished and buffed, and it is ready for sale.

Shoe
A shoe is an item of footwear intended to protect and comfort the human foot while doing various activities. Shoes are also used as an item of decoration. The design of shoes has varied enormously through time and from culture to culture, with appearance originally being tied to function. Additionally fashion has often dictated many design elements, such as whether shoes have very high heels or flat ones. Contemporary footwear varies widely in style, complexity and cost. Basic sandals may consist of only a thin sole and simple strap. High fashion shoes may be made of very expensive materials in complex construction and sell for thousands of dollars a pair. Other shoes are for very specific purposes, such as boots specially designed for mountaineering or skiing. Shoes have traditionally been made from leather, wood or canvas, but are increasingly made from rubber, plastics, and other petrochemical-derived materials. Until recent years,[when?] shoes were not worn by most of the world's populationlargely because they could not afford them. Only with the advent of mass production, making shoes available very cheaply, has shoe-wearing become predominant. The foot contains more bones than any other single part of the body. Though it has evolved over hundreds of thousands of years in relation to vastly varied terrain and climate conditions, the foot is still vulnerable to environmental hazards such as sharp rocks and hot ground, which shoes can protect against.

History

The oldest known leather shoe, about 5500 years old, found in Armenia. The earliest known shoes are sandals dating from about 8000 to 7000 BC and found in Oregon, USA in 1938.[1] The world's oldest leather shoe, made from a single piece of cowhide laced with a leather cord along seams at the front and back, was found in a cave in Armenia in 2008 and is believed to date to 3,500 BC.[2][3][4] tzi the Iceman's shoes, dating to 3,300 BC, featured brown bearskin bases, deerskin side panels, and a bark-string net, which pulled tight around the foot.[3] However, tanned leather, the material most commonly used for making shoes, does not normally last for thousands of years, so shoes were probably in use long before this. Physical anthropologist Erik Trinkaus believes he has found evidence that the use of shoes began in the period between about 40,000 and 26,000 years ago, based on the fact that the thickness of the bones of the toes (other than the big toe) decreased during this period, on the premise that wearing shoes resulted in less bone growth, resulting in shorter, thinner toes.[5][6] The earliest designs were simple affairs, often mere "foot bags" of leather to protect the feet from rocks, debris, and cold. Since shoes use more leather than sandals, their use was more common in cold climates. By the Middle Ages, turn-shoes had been developed with toggled flaps or drawstrings to tighten the leather around the foot for a better fit. As Europe gained in wealth and power, fancy shoes became status symbols. Toes became long and pointed, often to ridiculous proportions. Artisans created unique footwear for rich patrons, and new styles developed. Eventually the modern shoe, with a sewn-on sole, was devised. Since the 17th century, most leather shoes have used a sewn-on sole. This remains the standard for finer-quality dress shoes today. Until around 1800, shoes were made without differentiation for the left or right foot. Such shoes are now referred to as "straights".[citation needed] Only gradually did the modern foot-specific shoe become standard. Since the mid-20th Century, advances in rubber, plastics, synthetic cloth, and industrial adhesives have allowed manufacturers to create shoes that stray considerably from traditional crafting techniques. Leather, which had been the primary material in earlier styles, has remained standard in expensive dress shoes, but athletic shoes often have little or no real

leather. Soles, which were once laboriously hand-stitched on, are now more often machine stitched or simply glued on.

Parts
Sole
The bottom of a shoe, the part that is intended to come in repeated contact with the ground, is called the sole. Soles have been made from plant fibers, leather, wood, rubber, synthetics, plastic, and various combinations of these materials. Soles can be simple, a single material in a single layer, or they can be complex with multiple structures or layers and materials. Insole The insole is the interior bottom of a shoe, which sits directly beneath the foot under the footbed (also known as sock liner). The purpose of insole is to attach to the lasting margin of the upper, which is wrapped around the last during the closing of the shoe during the lasting operation. Insoles are usually made of cellulosic paper board or synthetic non woven insole board. Many shoes have removable and replaceable footbeds. Extra cushioning is often added for comfort (to control the shape, moisture, or smell of the shoe) or health reasons (to help deal with defects in the natural shape of the foot or positioning of the foot during standing or walking). Basically, this is a main part of shoes which can absorb foot sweat. Footbeds should typically use foam cushioning sheets like latex and EVA, which provide good wearing comfort of the shoe. Outsole

Parts of a shoe The outsole is the layer in direct contact with the ground. Dress shoes often have leather or resin rubber outsoles; casual or work-oriented shoes have outsoles made of natural rubber or a synthetic material like Polyurethane. The outsole may comprise a single piece, or may be an assembly of separate pieces of different materials. Often the heel of the sole has a rubber plate for durability and traction, while the front is leather for style. Specialized shoes will often have modifications on this design: athletic or so called cleated shoes like soccer, rugby, baseball and golf shoes have spikes embedded in the outsole to grip the ground. Midsole The layer in between the outsole and the insole that is typically there for shock absorption. Some types of shoes, like running shoes, have another material for shock absorption, usually beneath the heel of the foot, where one puts the most pressure down. Different companies use different materials for the midsoles of their shoes. Some shoes may not have a midsole at all.

Heel The bottom rear part of a shoe is the heel. Its function is to support the heel of the foot. They are often made of the same material as the sole of the shoe. This part can be high for fashion or to make the person look taller, or flat for a more practical and comfortable use.

Vamp (upper)
Every shoe has an upper part that helps hold the shoe onto the foot. In the simplest cases, such as sandals or flip-flops, this may be nothing more than a few straps for holding the sole in place. Closed footwear, such as boots, trainers and most men's shoes, will have a more complex upper. This part is often decorated or is made in a certain style to look attractive.

Lateral and medial

The outside part of the shoe is referred to as the lateral and the inside facing part of the shoe is the medial. This can be in reference to either the outsole or the vamp.

Welt
Main article: Welt (shoe) A welt is a strip of leather, rubber, or plastic that is stitched to the upper and insole of a shoe, as an attach-point for the sole.

Accessories

Shoehorn: can be used to insert a foot into a shoe by keeping the shoe open and providing a smooth surface for the foot to slide upon. Shoe tree: placed inside the shoe when user is not wearing it, to help maintain the shoe's shape. Heel grip: used to prevent the shoe from slipping on the heel if the fit is not perfect Foam tap: a small foam pad placed under the ball of the foot to push the foot up and back if the shoe is too loose. Shoe polishing equipment:

Shoe polish: a waxy material spread on shoes to improve appearance and glossiness, and provide protection.

Shoe brush and polishing cloth: used to apply polish to shoes.

Overshoes or galoshes: a rubber covering placed over shoes for rain and snow protection. (Orthopedic) shoe insert: insert of various materials for cushioning, improved fit, or reduced abrasion. These include padding and inner linings. Inserts may also be used to correct foot problems. Shoe bag: a bag that protects shoes against damage when they are not being worn. Shoe stretcher: a tool for making a shoe longer or wider or for reducing discomfort in areas of a shoe. Snow shoe: a wooden or leather piece which increases the area of ground covered by the shoe. Shoelaces: a system used to secure shoes.

Types
Dress and casual

Dress shoes are characterized by smooth and supple leather uppers, leather soles, and narrow sleek figure. Casual shoes are characterized by sturdy leather uppers, non-leather outsoles, and wide profile. Some designs of dress shoes can be worn by either gender. The majority of dress shoes have an upper covering, commonly made of leather, enclosing most of the lower foot, but not covering the ankles. This upper part of the shoe is often made without apertures or openings, but may also be made with openings or even itself consist of a series of straps, e.g. an open toe featured in women's shoes. Shoes with uppers made high to cover the ankles are also available; a shoe with the upper rising above the ankle is usually considered a boot but certain styles may be referred to as high-topped shoes or high-tops. Usually, a high-topped shoe is secured by laces or zippers, although some styles have elastic inserts to ease slipping the shoe on. Men's

This male dress shoe, known as a blucher, is distinguished by its open lacing. Men's shoes can be categorized by how they are closed:

Oxfords (also referred as "Balmorals"): the vamp has a V-shaped slit to which the laces are attached; also known as "closed lacing". The word "Oxford" is sometimes used by American clothing companies to market shoes that are not Balmorals, such as Blchers. Blchers (American), Derbys (British): the laces are tied to two pieces of leather independently attached to the vamp; also known as "open lacing" and is a step down in dressiness. Monk-straps: a buckle and strap instead of lacing Slip-ons: There are no lacings or fastenings. The popular loafers are part of this category, as well as less popular styles, such as elastic-sided shoes. Plain-toes: have a sleek appearance and no extra decorations on the vamp. Cap-toes: has an extra layer of leather that "caps" the toe. This is possibly the most popular decoration. Brogues (American: wing-tips): The toe of the shoe is covered with a perforated panel, the wing-tip, which extends down either side of the shoe. Brogues can be found in both balmoral and blucher styles, but are considered slightly less formal.

Men's shoes can also be decorated in various ways:

Men's shoes on display in a shopping outlet. Formal high-end men's shoes are manufactured by several companies around the world, most notably in England, France, Italy, and America. Notable British brands include: Church's English Shoes (est. 1873), John Lobb Bootmaker (est. 1849), Edward Green Shoes (est. 1890), and Crockett & Jones (est. 1879). Both John Lobb and Edward Green offer bespoke products. In between the world wars, men's footware received significant innovation and design, led by cobblers and cordwainers in London's West End.[7] The most notable French product is made by J.M. Weston. Armani of Italy was a major influence on men's shoe design in the 1960s-1980s until they returned to the larger proportions of its forebears, the weltconstructed Anglo-American dress shoe originally created in Edwardian England. Another well-known Italian company is Salvatore Ferragamo Italia S.p.A.. The remaining elite American companies are Allen Edmonds and Alden Shoe Company. Alden, located in New England, specializes in genuine shell cordovan leather from the only remaining horse tannery in America (Chicago)[8] and is completely manufactured in America, whereas Allen Edmonds, of Wisconsin, is a larger company that outsources some of its production.[9]

Unisex

The flip-flop sandal, worn both by men and women

Clog Platform shoe: shoe with very thick soles and heels Moccasin: originated by Native Americans, a soft shoe without a heel and usually made of leather.

Sandals: open shoes consisting of a sole and various straps, leaving much of the foot exposed to air. They are thus popular for warm-weather wear, because they let the foot be cooler than a closed-toed shoe would. Espadrilles are casual flat warm-weather shoes of a style which originated in the Pyrenees. They usually have a cotton or canvas upper and a flexible sole of rope or rubber. There are high-heeled versions for women. Saddle shoe: leather shoe with a contrasting saddle-shaped band over the instep, typically white uppers with black "saddle". Slip-on shoe: a dress or casual shoe without laces; often with tassels, buckles, or coinholders (penny loafers). Boat shoes, also known as "deck shoes": similar to a loafer, but more casual. Laces are usually simple leather with no frills. Typically made of leather and featuring a soft white sole to avoid marring or scratching a boat deck. The first boat shoe was invented in 1935 by Paul Sperry. Boots: Long shoes (covering the ankle) frequently made of leather. Some are designed to be used in times of bad weather, or simply as an alternate style of casual or dress wear. Styles include rubber boots and snow boots, as well as work boots and hiking boots. Slippers: For indoor use, commonly worn with pajamas. Vibram FiveFingers, meant to simulate the "natural" experience of going barefoot, while protecting the foot Sneakers or Canvas shoes

Athletic

Today the most popular shoe globally: the sports shoe adapted for everyday use Men's and women's athletic shoes and special function shoes often have less difference between the sexes than in dress shoes. In many cases these shoes can be worn by either sex. Emphasis tends to be more on function than style.

Running shoes: very similar to above, with additional emphasis on cushioning. Track spikes: lightweight; often with plastic or metal cleats Cleat (shoe): a type of shoe featuring molded or removable studs. Usually worn while playing sports such as rugby, football, American football, or baseball. Golf shoes: with "spikes" for better grip in grass and wet ground. Originally the spikes or "cleats" were made of metal but replaceable "soft spikes" made of synthetic plastic-like materials with prongs distributed radially around the edge of each spike are much more common today (and are required on many golf courses since they cause less damage to the greens).

Bowling shoes: intermediate style between ordinary dress shoes and athletic shoes. They have harder rubber soles/heels so as not to damage bowling alley floors. They are often rented or loaned at bowling alleys. Climbing shoes: a shoe designed for rock climbing. They typically have a close fit, little if any padding, and a smooth sticky rubber sole with an extended rubber rand. Hiking shoes or boots: usually have a high somewhat stiff upper with many lace eyelets, to provide ankle support on uneven terrain, with extra large traction on the sole. Walking shoes: have a more flexible sole than the running shoe, lighter in weight than the hiking boot, may have air holes, may not be water proof. Skating shoes: typically called skates. They have various attachments for skating on the bottom of the shoe portion.

Ice skates Roller skates Inline skates

Ski boot: a large, thick plastic boot specially designed for attachment to the ski. Skate shoes: specifically designed for use in Skateboarding, the shoes are manufactured with flat soles as to allow a skateboarder to have better grip when riding a skateboard. They are very wide and have extra layers of padding to protect the skateboarders feet. Cycling shoes are equipped with a metal or plastic cleat to interface with clipless pedals, as well as a stiff sole to maximize power transfer and support the foot. Snowshoes are special shoes for walking in thick snow. In temperate climates, snowshoes are used for mostly recreational purposes in winter. Wrestling shoes are light, flexible shoes that mimic bare feet while providing additional traction and protection.

Orthopedic
Orthopedic or "comfort" shoes are made with pedorthic and anatomically-correct comfort qualities, such as padded removable footbeds, wide toe boxes and arch support are made especially for those with problematic feet.

Dance

Pointe shoes are designed for ballet dancing. These have a toe box that is stiffened with glue and a hardened sole so the dancer can stand on the tips of their toes. They are secured by elastic straps and ribbons that are tied to the dancer's ankles. Ballet shoes are soft, highly pliable shoes made of canvas or leather, with either continuous or two-part sole (also called split-sole). The sole is typically made of leather, with thicker material under the ball and heel of the foot, and thinner and thus more flexible material under the arch so that the foot can be pointed to its utmost. Ballet slippers are usually secured by elastics that cross over the top of the foot. They are most commonly pink, white, black, or pale tan, although they may be made in specialty colours such as red or blue. Ghillies are soft shoes that are used in Irish dance, Scottish country dance, and highland dance.

Jazz shoes typically have a two-part rubberized sole (also called split-sole) to provide both flexibility and traction, and a low (one inch or shorter) heel. They are secured to the foot by laces or elastic inserts. Tango and Flamenco shoes are used for dancing the tango or flamenco. Ballroom shoes fall into two categories: Ballroom and Latin American. Both are characterised by suede soles. Men's ballroom shoes are typically lace-ups with oneinch heels and patent leather uppers. Ladies' ballroom shoes are typically court shoes with two-inch heels, made of fabric that can be colored to match the dancer's dress. In contrast to the low Ballroom heel, which evenly distributes weight across the foot, Latin American shoes have higher heels designed to shift weight onto the toes. Latin shoes are also more flexible than ballroom shoes. Men's Latin shoes typically have 1.5- to 2-inch high, shaped heels, while Ladies' Latin shoes have 2,5-inch to 3-inch heels. Ladies shoes are typically open-toed and strapped. Dance sneakers. Also known as dansneakers, these are a combination of a sneaker and a dance shoe, with a reinforced rubber toe. Character shoes have a one to three inch heel, which is usually made of leather, and often have one or more straps across the instep to secure it to the foot. They may come in soft-soled (suede) or hard-soled varieties. They may be converted to tap shoes by attaching taps. Foot thongs are known by various names depending on the manufacturer, including dance paws, foot undies, and foot paws. They are slip-on, partial foot covers that protect the ball of a dancer's foot from skin abrasions while executing turns. From a distance, flesh colored foot thongs give a dancer the appearance of having bare feet. Tap shoes have metal plates mounted to the bottoms of the toe and heel. The metal plates, which are known as taps, make a loud sound when struck against a hard performance surface. Tap shoes, which are used in tap dancing, may be made from any style of shoe to which taps can be attached.

Pointe shoes

Ballet shoes

Jazz shoes. This style is frequently worn by acro dancers

 A foot thong, viewed from the bottom

Ghillies

Ladies' ballroom shoes

Mens' ballroom shoes

Tap shoes

Athletic shoe

A pair of Reebok athletic shoes

Athletic shoe is a generic name for the footwear primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise but in recent years has come to be used for casual everyday activities. They are also known as trainers (British English), daps (Welsh English), sandshoes, gym boots or joggers (Australian English), running shoes, runners or gutties (Canadian English, Australian English, Hiberno-English), sneakers (American English), tennis shoes (British English, Australian English), gym shoes, tennies, sports shoes, sneaks, tackies[1] (South African English and Hiberno-English), rubber shoes (Philippine English) or canvers (Nigerian English).

[edit] Etymology
The British English term "trainer" derives from "training shoe." There is evidence[2] that this usage of "trainer" originated as a genericized tradename for a make of training shoe made in 1968 by Gola. Plimsolls (English English) are indoor athletic shoes, and are also called sneakers in American English and daps in Welsh English. The word "sneaker" is often attributed to Henry Nelson McKinney, an advertising agent for N. W. Ayer & Son, who, in 1917, coined the term because the rubber sole made the shoe stealthy. However, the word was in use at least as early as 1887, as the Boston Journal of Education made reference to "sneakers" as "the name boys give to tennis shoes."

[edit] History
The idea of a "sneaker" did not come along until an American inventor, Charles Goodyear, patented the process for the vulcanization of rubber.[3] While many believe that the first basketball shoe was the famous Converse All Stars (developed in 1917), this is mistaken. The Spalding company produced shoes specifically for the game of basketball as early as 1907.[citation needed] By the early 1900s, sneakers were being produced by small rubber companies who specialized in the production of bicycle tires. U.S. Rubber, introduced Keds in 1916, about the same time that Converse was marketing its All Star. Other companies, including B.F.

Goodrich[disambiguation needed ] and Spalding Co., were producing tennis shoes and smaller familyowned companies were manufacturing early cleated shoes. At first, the market for sneakers was small and practically invisible, but after World War I, the U.S. turned to sports and athletes as a way to demonstrate moral fiber and patriotism. The U.S. market for sneakers grew steadily as young boys lined up to buy sneakers endorsed by football player Jim Thorpe and Converse All Stars endorsed by basketball player Chuck Taylor. As the 1920s and 1930s approached, these companies added traction, and also started marketing them for different sports. A huge breakthrough of this time was the separation of designs for men and women. At this time, sneakers were used strictly for athletic events. When the Olympics were revived, this attracted more fans not only to sports, but to sneakers as well. In 1936, a French brand by the name of Spring Court [4] was born as the first canvas tennis shoe featuring signature 8 ventilation channels on the vulcanized natural rubber sole. The 1950s gave American families more leisure time, and as the baby boom started, more families chose to dress their youth in sneakers as school dress codes relaxed. Sneaker sales in the United States soared to six hundred million pairs a year in 1957, which led leather shoe makers to claim that "sneakers are bad for children's feet" to which sneaker producers replied "sneakers cure the syndrome of Inhibited Feet." In the early 1960s, sneakers were imported to the United States from Japan, but accounted for only a small portion of the market until Nike founders Phil Knight and Bill Bowerman began importing Tiger shoes under the name Blue Ribbon Sports. In the 1970s, sneakers led their own way as jogging quickly became popular and so did the necessity to have a pair of shoes for the occasion. Until this time, factories had been concerned with high production, but now the companies started to market their products as a lifestyle purpose. Soon there were shoes for football, jogging, basketball, runningevery sport had its own shoe. This was made possible by podiatrist development of athletic shoe technology. By the 1980s, sneakers were everywhere; Woody Allen wore them to the ballet, Led Zeppelin wore them in their 1976 documentary, and Dustin Hoffman wore them while playing reporter Carl Bernstein in the movie All the President's Men. The shoes originally developed for sports became the mainstay for most people. Nike and Reebok were among the market leaders. Newer brands went in and out of fashion, and sneaker companies started shelling out major endorsements to players. One of, if not the largest, endorsements was to Chicago player Michael Jordan, for a contract with Nike to make his own signature line of shoes and apparel. During the 1990s, shoe companies perfected their fashion and marketing skills. Sports endorsements grew larger and marketing budgets went through the roof. Sneakers became a fashion statement, and definition of identity and personality rather than humble athletic aids. [5] Athletic shoes are also often worn by children to school. Major Brands of Athletics Shoes are: Adidas, Anta, ASICS, BATA, Converse, DC Shoes, Dunlop, Fila, Gola, Globe, Heelys, Jordans, K-Swiss, Keds, Keen, Lacoste, Li Ning, Lonsdale, Mizuno, New Balance, Nike, PF Flyers, Puma, Reebok, Saucony, Skechers, Sperry Top-Sider, Starbury, UK Gear, Vans

[edit] Use in sports

The term athletic shoes is typically used for running in a marathon or half marathon, basketball, and tennis (amongst others) but tends to exclude shoes for sports played on grass such as association football and rugby football, which are generally known as "Studs," or in North America as cleats.

Attributes of an athletic shoe include a flexible sole, appropriate tread for the function ability to absorb impact. As the industry and design have expanded, the term "athletic shoes" is based more on the design of the bottom of the shoe than the aesthetics of the top of the shoe. Today's designs include sandal, elevated, and Mary Jane[clarification needed] styles suitable for running, dancing and jumping. The shoes themselves are made of flexible compounds, typically featuring a sole made of dense rubber. While the original design was basic, manufacturers have since tailored athletic shoes for the different purposes that they can be used for. A specific example of this is the spiked shoe developed for track running. Many of these shoes are made up to a very large size because of athletes with large feet. High-end marathon running shoes will often come in different shapes suited to different foot types, gait etc. Generally, these shoes are divided into neutral, overpronation and underpronation (supination) running shoes to fit the respective foot strike of the runners.[6] As running shoes become more advanced, amateur joggers, as well as marathon runners, are beginning to purchase shoes based on their running style and foot arch. This is often important for injury prevention, as well as to increase running efficiency. There are a variety of specialized shoes designed for specific uses:
Racing flats Track shoe Skate shoe Climbing shoe Approach shoe Wrestling shoe Cleats Football boot Dance shoe

[edit] Types
High-tops cover the ankle. Low-tops do not cover the ankle. Mid-cut are in-between high-tops and low-tops. Sneaker boots extend to the calf.

[edit] Sneakers

A pair of sneakers

Sneakers or canvas shoes are casual athletic shoes. Sneaker collectors, called "Sneakerheads", use sneakers as fashionable items. Casual sneakers like the Air Force One (Nike) or Superstar (Adidas) have become icons in today's pop culture. Artistically-modified sneakers can sell for upwards of $500. In more recent years, the classic shoe Nike Dunk has come to the attention of sneakerheads. During the release of these shoes people often line up several hours before the shops open, patiently waiting to get their hands on the shoes. Artistically modified sneakers can sell for up to $500 depending on their popularity. The opening day cost for these shoes can range from USD $60300.

Work
Work shoes are designed to stand heavy wear, to protect the wearer, and provide high traction. They are generally made from sturdy leather uppers and non-leather outsoles. Sometimes they are used for uniforms or comfort by nurses, waitresses, police, military personnel, etc. They are commonly used for protection in industrial settings, construction, mining, and other workplaces. Protective features may include steel-tipped toes and soles or ankle guards.

Minimalist
Minimalist shoes are shoes that are minimal in design so that the advantages of walking/running barefoot are incorporated, yet without dropping additional protection of the foot from sharp objects. Minimalist shoes include: Vibram FiveFingers, MBT, Nike Free

Historical
Shoes of the past include:

Turn-shoes: a method by which the shoe is constructed inside-out, wetted, and turned the finished side of the leather flipped to the outside. Such footwear was common

from the Middle-ages until modern shoes were developed in the Tudor era. Because of their construction, turn-shoes cannot simply be re-soled, unlike most modern shoe types.

Espadrilles: these sandals, which are still worn today, are found as early as the 14th century. Patten: a European wooden overshoe used to keep a person's feet dry outdoors. First worn in the middle ages, they continued in use even into the early 20th century. Peoples such as the Dutch, Flemings, and some French carved similar, fully enclosed wooden shoes. Poulaine: a shoe with a long-pointed toe, popular in Europe in the 15th century. Moccasins: the historical shoe of many North American Indian tribes.

Collection
Athletic sneaker collection has existed as a part of urban subculture in the United States for several decades.[10] Recent decades have seen this trend spread to European nations such as the Czech Republic.[11] A Sneakerhead is a person who owns multiple pairs of shoes as a form of collection and fashion. A contributor to the growth of sneaker collecting is the continued worldwide popularity of the Air Jordan line of sneakers designed by Nike for Basketball star Michael Jordan.

Maintenance
Gluing a new outsole to an athletic shoe

Breaking-in: some shoes are made of hard but deformable material. After a person wears them multiple times, the material reforms to fit the wearer's feet. The person is said to have broken in the shoes. Polishing: for protection, water resistance (to some extent) and appearance, especially for leather shoes and boots. Heel replacement: heels periodically wear out. Not all shoes are designed to enable this. Sanitization: the inside of shoes can be sanitized with germicidal shoe trees or other cleansing methods to prevent the growth of microorganisms such as odor-causing bacteria or fungi.[12] Sole replacement: soles can also wear out. Not all shoes can have their soles replaced. Shoelace replacement: shoelaces can sometimes be damaged or destroyed necessitating the replacement of the laces. When unfit for use, shoes can be treated as trash or municipal solid waste and disposed of. The exception can be with most athletic sneakers which can be recycled and turned into other raw materials. See Nike Grind as an example.

Someone who makes or repairs shoes in a shop is called a cobbler.

Biodegradability
Due to the appearance of new man-made materials, shoes have become increasingly less biodegradable. Currently, mass-produced shoes generally require 1000 years to degrade, and/or may not degrade at all, depending on the types of material employed in the production of the shoe. Recently some shoemakers have picked up on the issue and are beginning to produce shoes made entirely from degradable materials, such as Nike Considered.[13][14]

Etiquette
In the Middle East, parts of Africa, Korea and Thailand, it is considered rude to show the soles of the feet to others (even accidentally, such as by crossing the legs). Shoe throwing is a great insult in some areas in the Middle East and in India.[15] In addition, in Thailand, it is an extreme insult for the foot, socks, or shoes to touch someone's head or be placed over it.

In literature
Shoes play an important role in the fairy tales Cinderella, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and The Red Shoes. In literature and film, an empty shoe or a pair of shoes signifies death.[citation
needed]

Sizes
Main article: Shoe size

Units for shoe sizes vary widely around the world. European sizes are measured in Paris Points, which are worth two-thirds of a centimetre. The UK and American units are approximately one-quarter of an inch, starting at 8 inches.[citation needed] Men's and women's shoe sizes often have different scales. Shoes size is often measured using a Brannock Device, which can determine both the width and length of the foot.

A dress shoe (U.S. English) is a shoe to be worn at smart casual or more formal events. A dress shoe is typically contrasted to an athletic shoe. Dress shoes are worn by many as their standard daily shoes, and are widely used in dance, for parties, and for special occasions.

Men's dress shoes

Men's dress shoes are most commonly black or brown. Other possible colors include: burgundy, oxblood, chestnut, cordovan or white. Cordovan or oxblood shoes are worn sometimes in the United States, while the other colours are worn by men of many nationalities. They are all made of leather, usually entirely, including the outers, lining, and sole, though for more durability at the expense of elegance, many shoes are made with rubber soles. Shoes are usually made with many pieces of leather, and the seams can be decorated in various ways; most revolve around some type of brogueing. Brogues have rows of decorative punching in patterns: full brogues, or wingtips (the standard American name), have a toe cap in a wavy shape, with punched patterns on various sections of the shoe; half brogues have a normal straight edged toe cap and less punching; finally, other terms such as quarter-brogue etc. may be used to describe progressively less brogueing. All of the standard styles below may be brogued. Men's shoes are often categorised by their fastening, and the various possibilities are listed below in roughly descending order of formality.

Oxfords (British), or Balmorals (American), lace up and tie to keep them on the wearer's foot, and have a closed lacing, where the pieces of leather joined by the laces are sewn Oxford/Balmoral together at the bottom. Many Oxfords have an additional piece of leather sewn over the toe section, known as a toe cap. Oxfords are the standard shoe to wear with most suits.

Monk

A monk shoe has no lacing, and is closed by a strap with a buckle.

Derbies, or Blchers in America, are similar to Oxfords, but Derby/Blchers have open lacing. They are a little less formal, and are often worn in brown, with some brogueing. Loafers, or slip-ons, come in both men's and women's styles. It is not unusual for a man's loafer to have a tassel, although this can be seen in women's varieties too. Loafers were originally men's shoes, and are usually thought of as such, although women do now wear them.

Loafer/Slip-on

Other styles
In addition to the above, there are various less common types of footwear to accompany formalwear, such as the court shoe (also called opera shoe, or patent pumps) for eveningwear and the dress boot for daywear. Footwear consists of garments worn on the feet, for fashion, protection against the environment, and adornment. Being barefoot is commonly associated with poverty, but some cultures chose not to wear footwear at least in some situations. Socks and other hosiery are usually worn between the feet and other footwear, less often with sandals and flip flops (thongs). Footwear is sometimes associated with fetishism, particularly in some fashions in shoes, including boots. Durable shoes are a relatively recent invention, though many ancient civilizations wore ornamental footwear. Many ancient civilizations saw no need for footwear. The Romans saw clothing and footwear as signs of power and status in society, and most Romans wore footwear, while slaves and peasants remained barefoot. The Middle Ages saw the rise of high-heeled shoes, also associated with power, and the desire to look larger than life, and artwork often depicted someone barefoot as a symbol of poverty. Bare feet are also seen as a sign of humility and respect, and adherents of many religions worship or mourn barefoot, or remove their shoes as a sign of respect towards someone of higher standing. In some cultures, it is customary for people to remove their shoes before entering a home, and some religious communities require shoes to be removed before entering a building which they regard as holy, such as a temple. Practitioners of the craft of shoemaking are called shoemakers, cobblers or cordwainers.

[edit] History
Ancient Olympic discus thrower

Neolithic decoration The oldest confirmed footwear was discovered in Fort Rock Cave in the U.S. state of Oregon; radiocarbon dating of these sandals woven from sagebrush bark indicates an age of least 10,000 years. However footprints of what looks like ancient sandals have been carbon dated to around the time 500,000 BC.[1] Many people in ancient times, such as the Egyptians, Hindu and Greeks, saw little need for footwear, and most of the time were barefoot. The Egyptians and Hindus at times wore ornamental footwear, such as a soleless sandal known as a "Cleopatra", which did not provide any practical protection for the feet. The ancient Greeks largely viewed footwear as selfindulgent, unaesthetic and unnecessary. Shoes were primarily worn in the theatre, as a means of increasing stature, and many preferred to go barefoot.[2] Athletes in the Ancient Olympic Games participated barefoot and naked.[3] Even the Gods and heroes were primarily depicted barefoot, and the hoplite warriors fought battles in bare feet and Alexander the Great conquered half of the ancient world with barefoot armies. The Romans, who eventually conquered the Greeks, and adopted many aspects of their culture, did not adopt the Greek perception of footwear and clothing. Roman clothing was seen as a sign of power, and footwear was seen as a necessity of living in a civilized world, although the slaves and paupers usually went barefoot.[2] There are many references to shoes being worn in the Bible. During weddings of this period, a father would give his son-in-law a pair of shoes, to symbolize the transfer of authority.[4] During the Middle Ages, both men and women wore pattens, commonly seen as the predecessor of the modern high-heeled shoe,[5] while the poor and lower classes in Europe, as well as slaves in the New World, were barefoot.[2] In the 15th century, chopines were created in Turkey, and were usually 7-8 inches (17.7-20.3 cm) high. These shoes became popular in Venice and throughout Europe, as a status symbol revealing wealth and social standing. During the 16th century, royalty started wearing high-heeled shoes to make them look taller or larger than life, such as Catherine de Medici or Mary I of England. By 1580, men also wore them, and a person with authority or wealth was often referred to as, "well-heeled".[5] In modern society, high-heeled shoes are a part of women's fashion, perhaps more as a sexual prop.

[edit] Materials

Leather Plastic Rubber

Textiles Wood Jute Metal

[edit] Components

Adhesives Air cushion Buckle Counterfort Eyelet Heel Hook Insole Laces Reinforcement tape Shank Sole Tack Toe puff Tread Welt
Shoes are a type of footwear that protects the foot and the soles of the feet. Shoes are made of many different types of materials, such as leather, fabric, and plastic. There are several types of shoes: Athletic shoes (also called "running shoes") are made of fabric, rubber, and plastic. They are made for people to wear while they are doing sports or recreational activities. Athletic shoes like spikes, give grip to sprinting on the athletic track. Dress shoes are made for people to wear when they are wearing formal clothes such as a suit and tie or a tuxedo. Dress shoes are normally made from dark-colored leather that is shined using shoe polish. People working in professions such as business, law, and politics wear dress shoes. People working in restaurants or retail stores may also wear dress shoes. Work shoes are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work shoes often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work shoes are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals.

Types of Footwear

Sandals are a type of footwear that consists of a covering for the sole of the feet and straps or ties which hold the sandal onto the foot. Sandals are

worn in warm countries, such as the Philippines and Cuba. Sandals are also worn indoors in some places, such as in saunas. Boots are a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well. Rain boots (or rubber boots) are made from rubber or plastic. Rain boots protect a person's feet from water and rain. People who work on fishing boats and farmers wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in chemical factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals. Winter boots are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as leather, fabric, or plastic. Winter boots are insulated with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry. Work boots (or "construction boots") are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of steel in the sole to protect the foot from sharp nails. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site.

Socks are an article of clothing for the foot, ankle, and calf (the lower part of the leg, below the knee). Socks absorb perspiration (sweat) from the feet. Socks also protect the foot from chafing (rubbing) against the shoe or boot, which can cause blisters. Both men and women wear socks. Socks are usually made from cotton or synthetic fabrics. There are several types of socks: Athletic socks are made of cotton or synthetic fabric. They are made for people to wear while they are doing sports or recreational activities. Dress socks are made for people to wear when they are wearing dress shoes and formal clothes such as a suit and tie or a tuxedo. Dress socks are normally made from dark-colored fabric (often black or dark blue-colored). People working in professions such as business, law, and politics wear dress socks. People working in restaurants or retail stores may also wear dress socks. Winter socks are designed to keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter socks during the cold season. Winter socks can be made from many different materials, but most winter socks are made with wool. Wool is a warm fabric which helps to insulate the feet and keep them warm.

There are also foot and leg coverings for women which are related to socks. These articles of clothing, which are made from polyester or other synthetic materials, are called pantyhose, nylons, or tights.

[change] How footwear is made

[change] By hand
People in many countries make their own footwear by hand, using simple tools. A simple pair of sandals can be made by hand cutting a foot-shaped sole out of a thick, flexible material such as rubber. Next, straps of fabric, rope or leather can be added with a needle and thread. A simple pair of boots can be made by hand by using animal hide with fur, and sewing it with strong thread.

[change] In a factory
Many people wear footwear that is made in a factory. The machines in shoe factories and boot factories can make footwear much more quickly than people who are making footwear by hand with a needle and thread.

OTHER TYPES OF SHOES

Shoes made from real crocodile skin, in a conservation exhibit at Bristol Zoo, England

Boots

Chukka boots Combat boots Cowboy boots Fashion boots Go-go boots Hiking boots Kinky boots Motorcycle boots Platform boots Riding boots Russian boots Thigh-length boots

Derby boots

Ugg boots Valenki Waders Wellington boots Winklepickers Athletic shoes (also known as trainers or sneakers) Brothel creepers Court shoes (known in the US as pumps) Espadrilles Galoshes Kitten heels

Shoes

Diabetic shoes

Lace-up shoes Derby shoes Oxford shoes Brogues

High-tops Loafers Mary Janes Moccasins Mules Platform shoes Skate shoes

Monks

School shoes Tap shoes Sandals

"Mandals" Flip-flops (thongs) Slide Chaco Wrishofer Avarca, from Balearic Islands Slippers Socks

Indoor footwear

Footwraps Specific footwear

A foot thong, viewed from the underside.

Ballet shoes High-heeled footwear Climbing shoes Clogs Foot thong Football boots Sabaton Ski boots Snowshoes Surgical shoe Pointe shoes Swimfins (flippers) Areni-1 shoe, 5,500-year-old leather shoe found in Armenia Abarka, of leather, from Pyrenees nanule (Bosnia and Herzegovina)[6] Opanak, of leather, from Balkans Bast shoe, of bast, from Northern Europe Geta, of wood, from Japan Pampooties, of hide, from Ireland Crakow, shoes from Poland with long toes popular in the 15th century Galesh, of textile, from Iran

Safety footwear

Traditional footwear

Socks

 Trainer/Sneaker/Ankle socks

Diabetic sock

Orthopaedic footwear
Orthopaedic footwear is for people who have problems with feet and legs. Ortho- in Greek expresses the idea of "straight" or "correct" and -paedic comes from paideia ("rearing of children"). Orthopaedics originally evolved as a science for correction of deformities in children and later had other inclusions, like fracture treatment, and treatment of bony injuries. Orthopaedic footwear is specifically designed footwear to maintain the foot in normal alignment, in the presence of foot deformities, while walking. Children normally need orthopaedic footwear for correction of foot deformities, like club feet, or flat feet.[citation needed] CTEV Shoes and Arch supports are common orthopaedic footwear used in children. Generally this is for people who cannot find ready-made shoes that will help them to walk easily. Sometimes footwear can be modified relatively easily, such as raising a heel to balance a leg shortening. There are many conditions that can be helped such as those that are caused by accidents, birth defects or disease. There are even some that are self-inflicted due to fashion.

Boot

A boot is a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well. Some boots are held on with bootstraps or bootlaces. Some also have spats or gaiters to keep water out. Most have a very strong boot sole, the bottom part of a boot.

[change] Types of boots

Rain boots (or rubber boots) are made from rubber or plastic. Rain boots protect a person's feet from water and rain. People who work on fishing boats and farmers wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in chemical factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals. Winter boots are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as leather, fabric, or plastic. Winter boots are insulated with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry.

Work boots (or "construction boots") are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of steel in the sole to protect the foot from sharp nails. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site.

[change] Other meanings

People in English-speaking countries refer to boots in a figurative or joking manner when they tell someone "to lift yourself up by your own bootstraps". This is a joke because it is impossible for someone to lift themselves up by their own bootstraps. What the person is really saying is "figure out your problem yourself" or "find your own way to better your situation." As well, people sometimes use the term to bootstrap. This is an idiom meaning "to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better." The word "boot" is also used to describe how a computer starts up when a person presses the "on" button. Another term "To boot" is an idiom meaning also. For example, people say "he had a beer, and a whiskey to boot." This means that the person had a beer, and also had a glass of whiskey. Another slang use of the word "boot" is to say "Fred got the boot from the company." This means that Fred got fired from the company.

Sock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the item of clothing. For sock (disambiguation), see Sock (disambiguation).

Socks

Toe socks

Socks are often worn on a person's feet. They absorb sweat and help to keep the foot dry. Socks also give comfort to people's feet and keep them warm in cold weather. They are usually made of cotton or wool. Some socks can cover only the foot and ankle, and others may be long enough to cover the entire lower leg up to the knee. Toe socks are socks that wrap each toe separate from the others. Socks can be worn on the feet. Socks come in an array of different colors. Generally, white socks are worn for everyday or athletic use, and dark socks (black, brown, gray, or navy blue) are worn with business or formal wears. Some dress socks have patterns on them; these are called "argyles".

[change] Phone Socks

People often refer to sleeves that cover phones as 'socks'. These come in many different forms, colourful or plain. They help to protect the mobile phone whilst also being a stylish addition. Not many people use phone socks anymore because they seem to be old and out of use however some people still prefer to use them.