EE―250: Electric Machinery Fundamentals

Chap―7: DC Machinery Fundamentals

Dr. Umar Tabrez Shami

Slides Prepared from—Chap—7—DC Machinery Fundamentals
Chapter 7 DC Machinery Fundamentals
7.1 A Simple Rotating Loop between Curved Pole Faces

7.2 Commutation in a Simple Four-Loop DC Machine

7.3 Commutation and Armature Construction in Real DC Machines

7.4 Problems with Commutation in Real Machines

7.5 The Internal Gen. Voltage & Induced Torque Equation of Real DC
Machines (Optional)

7.6 The Construction of DC Machines (Self Study for Students)

7.7 Power Flow and Losses in DC Machines

7.1 A Simple Rotating Loop between Curved Pole Faces
CONSTRUCTION:
{ Same for DC motor or generator }

The simplest possible rotating dc

machine is shown in Figure 7-1. It
consists of a single loop of wire
rotating about a fixed axis. The
rotating part of this machine is called
the rotor, and the stationary part is
called the stator. The magnetic
field for the machine is supplied by
the magnetic north and south poles
shown on the stator in Figure 7- 1.
 7.1 A Simple Rotating Loop between Curved Pole Faces
Notice that the loop of rotor wire lies in a
slot carved in a ferromagnetic core. The
iron rotor, together with the curved shape
of the pole faces, provides a constant-width
air gap between the rotor and stator.

Since the magnetic flux must take the

shortest path through the air, it is
perpendicular to the rotor surface
everywhere under the pole faces. Also, since
the air gap is of uniform width, the
reluctance is the same everywhere under
the pole faces. The uniform reluctance
means that the magnetic flux density is
constant everywhere under the pole faces.
7.1 A Simple Rotating Loop between Curved Pole Faces
 The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop (fundamental concept of DC Generator)
If the rotor of this machine is rotated, a voltage will be
induced in the wire loop. To determine the magnitude
and shape of the voltage, examine Figure 7- 2.
To determine the total voltage eind on the loop, examine
each segment of the loop separately and sum all the
resulting voltages.
The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop (fundamental concept of DC Generator)

When the loop rotates through 180°,

segment ab is under the north pole face
insteadof the south pole face. At that
time, the direction of the voltage on
the segment reverses, but its
magnitude remains constant. The
resulting voltage eind or eTOT is shown
π 2π
as a function of time in Figure 7- 3.
Time

But there is a serious

problem with output voltage.
Can the students identify
the problem.
The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop (fundamental concept of DC Generator)
There is an alternative way to express Equ.(7- 5),
Notice that the tangential velocity v of the
edges of the loop can be expressed as

where r is the radius from axis of rotation out to

the edge of the loop and ω is the angular velocity.

the rotor surface area A is equal to 2πrl.

The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop (fundamental concept of DC Generator)
Getting DC Voltage out of the Rotating Loop
• Previous slide we saw that the
waveform at the output of loop was
like alternating current waveform. As
we are working for dc machines so
the output should be dc for this we
discuss this given below figure and
see how ac waveform will convert into
a dc voltage.
• In this figure you can see that the at
the output terminals of rotating loop
tor split rings are attached and also
called commutators.

π 2π Time
Every time the voltage of the loop switches direction, the contacts also
switch connections, and the output of the contacts is always built up in the
same way (Figure 7- 5b). This connection-switching process is known as
commutation. The rotating semicircular segments are called commutator
segments, and the fixed contacts are called brushes.
Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop (fundamental concept of DC Motor)
For an understanding of torque induced in
the rotating loop, we attach the battery
with the input terminals of the machine.
This configuration is shown in this figure.
 Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop (fundamental concept of DC Motor)
To find total torque induced in the
machine, we will find the torque at
each side of the loop and then add
all these torque values to get net
torque.
The force applied on every side of the
loop will be given as

And Torque will be given as

where θ is the angle between r and F.

Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop (fundamental concept of DC Motor)
Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop
7.2 Commutation in Four Loop DC Machine
Commutation is the process of converting the AC voltages and currents in the rotor of a
machine to DC voltages and currents at its terminals. It is the most critical part of the design
and operation of any DC machine.

For simple study of commutation in DC

machines we take a dc machine that has 4
windings loop, and 2-poles as it is shown in a
given figure.

4 Windings Loops are as follows:

Conductor 1—Conductor 1´→ Loop 1
Conductor 2—Conductor 2´→ Loop 2
Conductor 3—Conductor 3´→ Loop 3
Conductor 4—Conductor 4´→ Loop 4
7.2 Commutation in Four Loop DC Machine
4 Windings Loops are as follows:
Conductor 1—Conductor 1´→ Loop 1
Conductor 2—Conductor 2´→ Loop 2
Conductor 3—Conductor 3´→ Loop 3
Conductor 4—Conductor 4´→ Loop 4

4 winding rotor
internal
structure.
Equivalent Circuit
Induced Voltage E at ωt = 0º

How much voltage is induced between terminals xy = ?

What is the effect as rotor continues rotation on output voltage E? (ωt = 45º)
Now let us allow the Rotor to advance for an angle of 45º, What is the effect on output
voltages E?

?
What is the effect as rotor continues rotation on output voltage E? (ωt = 45º)

Loop 2

Loop 1

Loop 3
Loop 4

At that time, loops 1 and 3 have rotated into the gap between the poles, so the
voltage across each of them is zero. Notice that at this instant the brushes of the
machine are shorting out commutator segments ab and cd. At this time, only loops 2
and 4 are under the pole faces, so the terminal voltage E is given by
Let the rotor continue to rotate another 45º ( ωt = 45º + 45º = 90º )

Here, the 1', 2, 3, and 4' conductor of the

loops are under the north pole face, and
the 1, 2', 3', and 4 conductors of the loops
are under the south pole face.
Let us summarize from ωt = 0º to ωt = 45º to ωt = 90º
 The resulting output voltage of the machine

In summary,

Commutation is the process of switching the loop connections on the rotor of a DC

machine just as the voltage in the loop switches polarity, in order to maintain an
essentially constant dc output voltage.
7.3 Commutation and Armature Construction in Real DC Machines
In real dc machines, there are several ways in which the loops on the rotor (also
called the armature) can be connected to its commutator segments.
The Rotor Coils
Irrespective of the method in which the windings are linked with commutators,
mostly armature windings comprises of diamond-like arrangements of coils that are
placed into the slots at the rotor.
The number of conductors on a machine 's armature is given by
• To enhance commutation in the windings of a rotor normally less quantity of
chording is employed.
• Normally windings used in the rotor are 2 layer windings, that have in every coil
two different windings are placed.
• One side of the windings coil is placed at bottom of its slot, and the second side
is placed at the top of the slot.
• This type of arrangement needs the special technique to put placed coils in the
slots of rotor.
• One end of every coil is located at the bottom of its slot, and then all the
bottom sides are in place, the other end of every coil is located at the top of its
slot.
• In this style, all the windings are interlaced together, enhancing the mechanical
strength and homogeneity of the concluding assembly.
Connections to the Commutator Segments
• After placing the windings in the rotor’s slots of dc machines next process is to
link these windings with the commutator.
• There are numerous techniques that can be used for windings joining with the
commutators and many arrangements of windings can be used for this process
each has its own benefits and drawbacks.
• The space among the split rings or commutator parts that are connected with
the 2 ends of windings are known as the pitch of commutator and denoted as YC.
Progressive windings Retrogressive winding
It simple word we can explain it that if In simple words that if we connect one
the first commutator segment is ‘n’ and end with ‘n’ commutator segment and
next is ‘n+1’ and windings are connected second with ‘n-1’ segment than it called
with these two). retrogressive windings.
The Lap Winding

A winding in which the number of the parallel paths

between the brushes is twice the number of poles is
called duplex lap winding.

Used in a DC machine for high current and low voltage.

The Wave Winding

Used in a DC machine for low current

and high voltage.
7.4 Problems with Commutation in Real Machines
A COMMUTATOR is a rotary electrical switch in electric motors and electrical
generators that periodically reverses the current direction between the rotor and
the external circuit.

During commutation, some problems occur that disturb/influence the AC to DC

conversion process. We will have a look at these issues that disturb the
commutation and also discuss some solutions to these problems.

Problems with Commutation in DC Machines.

1. Armature reaction

2. L di/dt voltages
7.4 Problems with Commutation in Real Machines
A COMMUTATOR is a rotary electrical switch in electric motors and electrical
generators that periodically reverses the current direction between the rotor and
the external circuit.

During commutation, some problems occur that disturb/influence the AC to DC

conversion process. We will have a look at these issues that disturb the
commutation and also discuss some solutions to these problems.

Problems with Commutation in DC Machines.

1. Armature reaction

2. L di/dt voltages
7.4 Problems with Commutation in Real Machines
1―Armature Reaction
Magnetic Neutral Plane and Geometrical Neutral Plane

The Geometrical Neutral Plane (GNP) is the axis that bisects the angle between the center
line of adjacent poles.

The Magnetic Neutral Plane (MNP) is defined as the plane within the machine where the
velocity of the rotor conductors /wires is exactly parallel to the magnetic flux lines, so that
eind in the conductors in the plane is exactly zero. Commutator Brushes are always placed on
the MNP.
The Armature Reaction
7.4 Problems with Commutation in Real Machines
Armature Reaction
The Armature Reaction causes two serious problems in real DC machines
1. Neutral—Plane Shift Magnetic Neutral Plane
2. Flux Weakening

The Magnetic Neutral Plane is defined as the plane within the machine where
the velocity of the rotor conductors /wires is exactly parallel to the magnetic flux
lines, so that eind in the conductors in the plane is exactly zero. Commutator
Brushes are always placed on the MNP.
1. Neutral—Plane Shift

High Concentration Flux Low Concentration Flux

Impact on Commutator Brushes location DUE TO Neutral—Plane Shift

In general, the neutral plane shifts in the direction of motion for a generator and
opposite to the direction of motion for a motor. Furthermore, the amount of the shift
depends on the amount of rotor current and hence on the load of the machine.
 2. Flux Weakening
The second major problem caused by armature
reaction is called flux weakening.

To understand flux weakening, refer to the

magnetization curve shown in Figure 7-24. Most
machines operate at flux densities near the
saturation point.

Therefore, at locations on the pole surfaces where

the rotor magnetomotive force adds to the pole
magnetomotive force, only a small increase in flux
occurs. But at locations on the pole surfaces where
the rotor magnetomotive force subtracts from
the pole magnetomotive force, there is a larger
decrease in flux. The net result is that the total
average Flux under the entire pole face is
decreased (see Figure 7-25).
Armature Reaction

It should be noted that both distorting and demagnetizing

effects will increase with increase in the armature current.
2―L di/dt Voltages
1
a

a
2―L di/dt Voltages
2―L di/dt Voltages
2―L di/dt Voltages
 di
e=L voltage of inductor, in our case called kick-in voltage
dt
Total Current in brush = 400 A 200 A to left side + 200 A to right side
Machine RPM = 8000 rpm
Total Number of com.segments = 50 segments
So,
8000 revolutions in 60 sec
60
1 revolution in sec
8000
and in 1 revolution there are 50segments
60
That is one com. segment will take sec
(8000)×(50)
60
This means that each com. segment will make contact with brush for sec
(8000)×(50)
= 0.0015 sec
so
Δi = 200-(-200) = 400 A
Δt = 0.0015 sec
Δi 400
= = 266,666 A/sec
Δt 0.0015
Now the induced voltage in the coil whose current reversed is :
di
e=L = (L × 266,666) volts
dt
di
Now even if L is very small then due to large , the kick-in voltage will be large. This large voltage will cause sparking.
dt
L di/dt Voltages
L di/dt Voltages
Solutions to the Problems with Commutation
Three approaches have been developed to partially or completely correct the problems
of Armature Reaction and L di/dt voltages:
1. Brush Shifting
2. Commutating Poles or Interpoles
3. Compensating Windings
Each of these techniques is explained below. together with its advantages and
disadvantages.
 1. Brush Shifting
• We have already seen that the MNP changes with load current.
• Therefore, to minimize the Armature Reactions, we can shift the
location brushes according to the load current.
• However, such procedure is trouble-some and complex.
• Shifting the brushes may have stopped the brush sparking, but it
actually causes the flux-weakening effect of the armature reaction in
the machine. This is true because of two effects:

1. The rotor MMF now has a vector component that opposes

the MMF from the poles (see Figure 7-27).
2. The change in armature current distribution causes the flux
to bunch up even more at the saturated parts of the pole faces.

• Another approach is to fix the brushes in a compromise position (say,

one that caused no sparking at two-thirds of full load). In this case,
the motor sparked at no load and somewhat at full load, but if it
spent most of its life operating at about two-thirds of full load, then
sparking was minimized.
2. Commutating Poles or Interpoles
The basic idea behind this new approach is that if the
voltage in the wires undergoing commutation can be
made zero, then there will be no sparking at the
brushes. To accomplish this, small poles, called
commutating poles or interpoles, are placed midway
between the main poles. These commutating poles are
located directly over the conductors being commutated.
By providing a flux from the commutating poles, the
voltage in the coils undergoing commutation can be
exactly canceled. If the cancellation is exact, then there
will be no sparking at the brushes.

Therefore,
1. The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the next upcoming main pole in a generator.
2. The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the previous main pole in a motor.
 3. Compensating Windings
The third technique involves placing compensating windings in slots carved in the faces of
the poles parallel to the rotor conductors, to cancel the distorting effect of armature reaction.
These windings are connected in series with the rotor windings, so that whenever the load
changes in the rotor, the current in the compensating windings changes, too.
3. Compensating Windings
 3. Compensating Windings
The compensating windings consist of a series of coils
embedded in slots in the pole faces. These coils are
connected in series with the armature.

The series-connected compensating windings produce a

magnetic field, which varies directly with armature current.
Because the compensating windings are wound to produce a
field that opposes the magnetic field of the armature, they
tend to cancel the cross magnetizing effect of the armature
magnetic field.

The neutral plane will remain stationary and in its original

position for all values of armature current. Because of this,
once the brushes have been set correctly, they do not have
to be moved again.
To neutralize completely the effects of armature reaction, a
second set of auxiliary field windings, known as the
compensating windings, is used in high-power DC machines.
7.5 The Internal Generated Voltage and Induced Torque Equations of Real DC Machines

A―Internal Generated Voltage―Equations

How much Voltage is produced by a real DC machine depends on three factors:
1. The flux ɸ in the machine
2. The speed ωm of the machine's rotor
3. A constant depending on the construction of the machine

How can the voltage in the rotor windings of a real machine

be determined? The voltage out of the armature of a real
machine is equal to the number of conductors per current path
times the voltage on each conductor. The voltage in any
single conductor under the pole faces was previously
shown to be

The voltage out of the armature of a real machine is thus

where Z is the total number of conductors and a is the number of current paths.
7.5 The Internal Generated Voltage and Induced Torque Equations of Real DC Machines
The velocity of each conductor in the rotor can be expressed as v = r ωm where r is the
radius of the rotor. so
7.5 The Internal Generated Voltage and Induced Torque Equations of Real DC Machines

B—Internal Induced Torque―Equations

How much Torque is produced by a real DC machine depends on three factors:
1. The flux ɸ in the machine
2. The rotor or armature current IA in the machine
3. A constant depending on the construction of the machine

How can the torque on the rotor of a real machine be

determined? The torque on the armature of a real machine is
equal to the number of conductors Z times the torque on each
conductor. The torque in any single conductor under the pole
faces was previously shown to be.

If there are a current paths in the machine, then the total armature current IA is split among
the a current paths, so
7.6 The Construction of DC Machines

Pole and Frame Construction

Rotor or Armature Construction
Commutator and Brushes
Winding Insulation
7.6 The Construction of DC Machines

Pole and Frame Construction

Rotor or Armature Construction

Commutator and Brushes

Winding Insulation
7.7 Power Flow and Losses in DC Machines

The Loss in DC Machines

7.7 Power Flow and Losses in DC Machines

The Loss in DC Machines

7.7 Power Flow and Losses in DC Machines

The Loss in DC Machines

7.7 Power Flow and Losses in DC Machines

The Loss in DC Machines

7.7 Power Flow and Losses in DC Machines

The Power―Flow Diagram

For DC Generator

For DC Motor
 Why are brushes placed along an MNP in a DC generator?

Brushes collect the current due to the induced emf from the armature coils. When a brush is at any particular
commutator segment, it shorts out that particular coil and draws current from the rest of the coils.
If the brush is not exactly at the particular segment, say one half is in one segment and other half is in a different one,
then it draws current in that proportion.
But the thing remains that, at any particular moment of time, the brushes are always shorting one coil. Now as it is a
short circuit, if emf is induced in that coil, huge current will flow. To prevent this, brushes are positioned in such a way
that the coil being short circuited has no induced emf in it.
No induced emf, no current, no heating loss in brushes, no sparking at commutator segments.
Ok so all the good things start happening once you position your brush at the point where emf induced in a coil is zero.
So where is that point? It turns out that, these points lie along the Magnetic Neutral Plain . MNP, as the name
suggests has magnetic neutrality along that axis.
As net magnetic field along MNP is zero, hence no emf can be induced. So that's where one must position the brushes.
7.4 Problems with Commutation in Real Machines
Armature Reaction
Armature Reaction
Armature Reaction
Armature Reaction
Armature Reaction
Armature Reaction
Armature Reaction