HUMAN BODY

-acollection of
glands: exocrine
glands and
endocrine glands.
What is the difference between the
endocrine gland and the exocrine gland?

Endocrine gland is a gland whose

secretions (called hormones) are
collected by the blood and reach
the tissues through the
circulation.
ENDOCRINE:
• They are ductless
• They use the
bloodstream
• They secrete hormones
HORMONES-

released by the
thyroid, parathyroid,
and other glands,
under the general
direction of the
“Master” Pituitary
gland.
6
HORMONES
• Chemically, hormones are either:
• Steroid or steroid-like hormones such
as:
• Sex hormones
• Adrenal cortex hormones
• Non-steroid hormones such as:
• Amines
• Proteins
• Peptides
• Glycoproteins
 STEROID NON-STEROID
HORMONES HORMONES
8
What is the difference between
the endocrine gland and the
exocrine gland?
Exocrine gland is a gland
whose secretions are released
externally through ducts (into
the skin, intestinal lumen,
mouth, etc.).
 Thyroid
gland

Endocrine
gland

Hormone secretion

Endocrine
cell

Blood flow
Skin

(a)

Duct

Exocrine gland
Exocrine
(sweat gland)
cells
EXOCRINE
• They have ducts
• They deliver their
products directly to a
specific site
 What are the main endocrine
glands of the human body?
the pineal gland (or the endocrine part
pineal body) of the pancreas
the hypophysis (or the adrenal gland
pituitary)
the gonads
the thyroid gland (testicles or
ovaries).
the parathyroids
ENDOCRINE
GLANDS Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland Pineal gland

Parathyroid gland
Thyroid gland

Thymus

Adrenal gland
Kidney
Pancreas

Ovary
(in female)

Testis
(in male) 13
14

Pituitary Gland
• Lies at the base of the
brain in the
Sella turcica
• Consists of two
distinct portions:
1. Anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)
2. Posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)
15
Pituitary Gland
• Known as the “Master” gland since
it controls the functions of many
other endocrine glands.
• Composed of two lobes: the
anterior and posterior lobes
• Both lobes are controlled by the
hypothalamus
 The two segments are:
Posterior Pituitary:
The Endocrine System
produces oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)
The Pituitary Gland is Anterior Pituitary:
divided into 2 areas, which
differ produces thyroid-
stimulating hormone
(TSH)
structurally and
functionally growth hormone (GH)
adrenocorticotropin
each area has separate (ACTH)
types of hormone
production. follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
 Anterior
Pituitary…
Growth hormone
(GH)
The Endocrine System  glucose usage
Anterior Pituitary  consumption of
fats as an energy
Primarily regulates other source
endocrine glands ACTH stimulates the
TSH stimulates the thyroid adrenal cortex to
gland to release its release its hormones
hormones, thus  metabolic FSH & LH stimulates
rate maturation & release
of eggs from ovary.
The Endocrine System
And even more… Posterior Pituitary

luteinizing hormone Oxytocin (the natural form of

pitocin)
(LH)
stimulates gravid uterus
prolactin causes “let down” of
milk from the breast.
ADH (vasopressin) causes the
Let’s go over these one kidney to retain water.

at a time...
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

23

Third ventricle

Hypothalamus
Anterior cerebral
artery Optic chiasma

Optic nerve Oculomotor

nerve
Pituitary stalk Trochlear nerve
(Infundibulum)
Anterior lobe Posterior lobe
of pituitary gland of pituitary
gland
Sella turcica
Sphenoidal
sinus
Sphenoid bone Basilar artery
Anterior Pituitary
Hormones
25

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Hormones from Hypothalamus

GHRH SS PRF PIH TRH CRH GnRH

Growth Somatostatin Prolactin- Prolactin- Thyrotropin- Corticotropin- Gonadotropin-
hormone- releasing release releasing releasing releasing
releasing factor inhibiting hormone hormone hormone
hormone hormone

Hormones from Anterior Pituitary

GH PRL TSH ACTH LH FSH

Growth Prolactin Thyroid- Adrenocorticotropic Luteinizing Follicle-
hormone stimulating hormone hormone stimulating
hormone hormone

Bone Muscle Adipose Mammary gland Thyroid Adrenal Ovary Testis

tissue cortex
27
28

Thyroid Gland
• The thyroid gland has
two lateral lobes and
lies just below the larynx
• It produces three
hormones:
• T4 (thyroxine)
• T3 (triiodothyronine)
• Calcitonin
 Within the colloid are
The Endocrine Systemthe thyroid hormones:
The Thyroid Gland thyroxine (T4)
triiodothyronine (T3)
lies in the anterior neck just
below the larynyx. When stimulated
(by TSH or by cold),
Two lobes, located on either these are released
side of the trachea, into the circulatory
connected by a narrow system and  the
band of tissue called the metabolic rate.
isthmus.
“C” cells within the
Sacs inside the gland thyroid produce the
contain colloid hormone calcitonin.
The Endocrine System

Calcitonin, when
released, lowers the Myxedema
amount of calcium in symptoms:
the blood.
Facial bloating
Inadequate levels of weakness
thyroid hormones = cold intolerance
hypothyroidism, or
lethargy
Myxedema.
altered mental status
oily skin and hair
 The Endocrine System
Increased thyroid hormone
release causes
hyperthyroidism, commonly Long term
called Graves’ disease. hyperthyroidism:
Signs and symptoms: Exopthalmos
insomnia, fatigue bulging of the
tachycardia eyeballs
hypertension
heat intolerance
weight loss
Thyroid Hormones
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

OH OH
I I I

O O
I I I I

CH2 CH2

NH2CHCOOH NH2CHCOOH

Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3)

35
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

© Mediscan/Visuals Unlimited © Mediscan/Visuals Unlimited © Mediscan/Visuals Unlimited

36
37

Parathyroid Glands
• The parathyroid glands are on the
• posterior surface of the thyroid
gland
• There are typically four
parathyroid glands
• It secretes one hormone:
• PTH (parathyroid hormone or
parathormone)
 The Endocrine System
Parathyroid Glands produce parathyroid
hormone -  level of
small, pea-shaped calcium in blood
glands, located in the
neck near the thyroid Hypocalcemia
regulate the level of can result if
parathyroids are
calcium in the body removed or
destroyed.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Parathyroid glands (on

posterior of thyroid gland)
Release into
bloodstream
Decreased blood calcium Increased blood
Stimulation stimulates parathyroid – calcium inhibits
hormone secretion PTH secretion
Inhibition
PTH

Bloodstream

PTH PTH
Ca+2 Ca+2 Ca+2
+ +

Bone Kidneys Intestine

releases Ca+2 conserve Ca+2 and absorbs Ca+2
activate Vitamin D

Active
Vitamin D

41
42
43
Adrenal Glands

* The adrenal glands are closely

associated with the kidneys
*The gland sits like a cap on each
kidney
*Hormones are secreted from two
different areas of the gland,
the adrenal cortex and the
adrenal
medulla
*Numerous hormones are
secreted by the adrenal glands
 One at a time…

The Endocrine System glucocorticoids:

accounts for 95% of
adrenal cortex hormone
production
The Adrenal Cortex
secretes 3 classes of  the level of glucose in
hormones, all steroid the blood
hormones: Released in response to
stress, injury, or serious
glucocorticoids infection - like the
hormones from the
mineralocorticoids
adrenal medulla.
androgenic
hormones
 The Endocrine System

Mineralocorticoids:
Signs & Symptoms of
work to regulate the
Cushing’s Disease:
concentration of
potassium and sodium in  in blood sugar levels
the body. unusual body fat
distribution
Prolonged  in adrenal
cortex hormone results in rapid mood swings
Cushing’s Disease.
 Sodium can also be
The Endocrine Systemretained by the
kidney, resulting in
hyponatremia.
And - if there is an  in
mineralocorticoids Causes:
as well dysrhythmias
A serious electolyte coma
imbalance will occur due
to the  potassium Death
excretion by the kidney, Removal of tumor.
which results in
hypokalemia.
47
Structure of the Glands
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Capsule Surface of
adrenal gland
Zona Connective
Adrenal gland tissue capsule
glomerulosa
Zona
Kidney
glomerulosa
Zona
fasciculata
Cortex

Zona
Adrenal fasciculata
Adrenal cortex cortex

Adrenal
medulla
Zona
reticularis
Zona
reticularis (a)
Adrenal
Medulla

medulla
(b)
Chromaffin
cells
© Ed Reschke
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
48
The Endocrine System
the Adrenal Medulla secretes the catecholamine
hormones norepinephrine and
epinephrine (closely related to the sympathetic
component of the autonomic nervous system).
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
50
51 Pancreas

• The pancreas has two major

types of secretory tissue
• This is why it is a dual
functioning organ as both
an exocrine gland and
endocrine gland
• Three hormones are
secreted from the islet
cells/ Islets of Langerhans
1. Alpha cells secrete
glucAgon
2. Beta cells insulin
3. Delta cells secrete
somatostatin
The Endocrine System
specialized tissues in which
the endocrine functions of
the pancreas occurs

include 3 types of cells:

alpha ( )
beta ()
delta ()
each secretes an
important hormone.
The Endocrine System

Alpha () cells release The surge of glucagon

glucagon, essential for stimulates the liver to
controlling blood glucose release glucose stores
levels. (from glycogen and
additional storage sites).
When blood glucose
levels fall,  cells  the Also, glucagon
amount of glucagon in stimulates the liver to
the blood . manufacture glucose -

gluconeogenesis.
 The Endocrine System
Beta Cells () release Insulin is rapidly broken
insulin (antagonistic to down by the liver and
glucagon). must be secreted
constantly.
Insulin  the rate at which
various body cells take up Delta Cells () produce
glucose. Thus, insulin somatostatin, which
lowers the blood glucose inhibits both glucagon
level. and insulin.
 DIABETES
TYPE 1
https://www.y
outube.com/ VS.
watch?v=Mko
250V6PYI DIABETES
TYPE 2
56
Structure of the Gland
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Pancreatic islet (Islet of Langerhans) Gallbladder Common bile duct

Pancreatic duct

Duct Pancreas

Small
intestine

Digestive enzyme-
secreting cells
Pancreatic islet
(Islet of Langerhans)
Capillary
Hormone-secreting
islet cells
From Kent M. Van De Graaff and Stuart Ira Fox, Concepts of Human Anatomy and
Physiology, 2nd ed. ©1989 Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. All Rights
Reserved. Reprinted with permission
57 Hormones of the Pancreatic Islets
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

58 Control center
Beta cells secrete
insulin

Effectors
Receptors Insulin
Beta cells detect a rise • Promotes movement of glucose into
in blood glucose certain cells
• Stimulates formation of glycogen from
glucose
Stimulus Response
Rise in blood glucose Blood glucose drops toward
normal (and inhibits insulin
secretion)

too high

Normal
blood glucose
concentration

too low

Response
Stimulus
Blood glucose rises toward
Drop in blood glucose
normal (and inhibits glucagon
secretion)

Receptors Effectors
Alpha cells detect a drop Glucagon
in blood glucose • Stimulates cells to break down glycogen
into glucose
• Stimulates cells to convert
noncarbohydrates into glucose
Control center
Alpha cells secrete
glucagon
59

Other Endocrine Glands

Pineal Gland
• Secretes melatonin
Thymus Gland
• Secretes thymosins
• Promotes development of certain lymphocytes
• Important in role of immunity
Reproductive Organs
• Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone
• Testes produce testosterone
• Placenta produces estrogens, progesterone,
and gonadotropin
 The Endocrine System

Gonads : Ovaries:
the endocrine glands located in the abdominal cavity
associated with human adjacent to the uterus.
reproduction. Under the control of LH and FSH
from the anterior pituitary they
Female ovaries produce manufacture
eggs estrogen
Male gonads produce sperm protesterone
both have endocrine functions.
 The Endocrine
System
Estrogen and
Progesterone have Testes:

several functions, located in the scrotum

including sexual produce sperm for reproduction

development and manufacture testosterone -

preparation of the promotes male growth and

masculinization
uterus for Controlled by anterior pituitary
implantation of the hormones FSH and LH.
egg.
62

Stress and Its Effects

• Survival depends on maintaining
homeostasis
• Factors that change the internal
environment are potentially life-
threatening
• Sensing such dangers directs nerve
impulses to the hypothalamus
• This can trigger a loss of homeostasis
63

13.12: Lifespan Changes

• Endocrine glands decrease in size
• Muscular strength decreases as GH levels decrease
• ADH levels increase due to slower break down in liver and
kidneys
• Calcitonin levels decrease; increase risk of osteoporosis
• PTH level changes contribute to risk of osteoporosis
• Insulin resistance may develop
• Changes in melatonin secretion affect the body clock
• Thymosin production declines increasing risk of infections