Fact Sheet FS-216-95

Mercury Contamination of Aquatic Ecosystems

U.S. Department of the Interior–U.S. Geological Survey

Introduction 33 states have issued fish consumption

Mercury has been well known as an envi­ advisories because of mercury contami­
ronmental pollutant for several decades. nation (fig. 1). These continental to
As early as the 1950’s it was established global scale occurrences of mercury
that emissions of mercury to the environ­ contamination cannot be linked to indi­
ment could have serious effects on vidual emissions of mercury, but
human health. These early studies dem­ instead are due to widespread air pollu­
onstrated that fish and other wildlife from tion. When scientists measure mercury
various ecosystems commonly attain mer­ levels in air and surface water, howev­
cury levels of toxicological concern when er, the observed levels are extraordinar­
directly affected by mercury-containing ily low (fig. 2). In fact, scientists have
emissions from human-related activities. to take extreme precautions to avoid
Human health concerns arise when fish direct contact with water samples or Figure 2. The droplet of mercury shown in this
slide is about 1 gram; the same amount that is
and wildlife from these ecosystems are sample containers, to avert sample con­ in a standard mercury thermometer and the
consumed by humans. tamination (fig. 3). Herein lies an appa­ total amount that is deposited annually on a
lake in northern Wisconsin with a surface area
rent discrepancy: Why do fish from of 27 acres.
During the past decade, a new trend has some remote areas have elevated mer­
emerged with regard to mercury pollution. cury concentrations, when contamina­
Investigations initiated in the late 1980’s tion levels in the environment are so than their bodies can eliminate them, thus
in the northern-tier states of the U.S., low? the amount of mercury in their body accu­
Canada, and Nordic countries found that mulates over time. If for a period of time
fish, mainly from nutrient-poor lakes and How does mercury become a an organism does not ingest mercury, its
often in very remote areas, commonly toxicological problem? body burden of mercury will decline. If,
have high levels of mercury. More Like many environmental contami­ however, an organism continually ingests
recent fish sampling surveys in other nants, mercury undergoes bioaccumula­ mercury, its body burden can reach toxic
regions of the U.S. have shown wide­ tion. Bioaccumulation is the process by levels. The rate of increase or decline in
spread mercury contamination in streams, which organisms (including humans) body burden is specific to each organism.
wet-lands, reservoirs, and lakes. To date, can take up contaminants more rapidly For humans, about half the body burden
of mercury can be eliminated in 70 days if
no mercury is ingested during that time.
Biomagnification is the incremental
increase in concentration of a contaminant
at each level of a food chain (fig. 4).
This phenomenon occurs because the food
source for organisms higher on the food
chain is progressively more concentrated
in mercury and other contaminants, thus
magnifying bioaccumulation rates at the
top of the food chain. The bioaccumula­
tion effect is generally compounded the
longer an organism lives, so that larger
predatory game fish will likely have the
highest mercury levels. Adding to this
EXPLANATION
FISH CONSUMPTION ADVISORIES:
problem is the fact that mercury concen­
MERCURY
trates in the muscle tissue of fish. So,
One or more advisories unlike organic contaminants (for example
No mercury advisories
PCBs and dioxins) which concentrate in
0 400 800 MILES
0 400 800 MILES the skin and fat, mercury cannot be
filleted or cooked out of consumable
Figure 1. States with at least one fish consumption advisory for game fish.
mercury. Source: USEPA Fish Consumption Data Base
 What are the human health milder effects are generally reversible if
effects of mercury toxicity? exposure to mercury is halted. Unborn
Humans generally uptake mercury in children are at greatest risk from low-level
two ways: (1) as methylmercury exposure to methylmercury. Recent
(CH3Hg+) from fish consumption, or research suggests that prenatal effects
(2) by breathing vaporous mercury occur at intake levels 5­
(Hg0) emitted from various sources 10 times lower than that of adults. If these
such as metallic mercury, dental amal­ results are confirmed, a substantial frac­
gams, and ambient air. Our bodies are tion of unborn children would be at risk.
much more adapted for reducing the
potential toxicity effects from vaporous Mercury Cycling in the
mercury, so health effects from this Environment
source are relatively rare. Methylmer­ Mercury can take a myriad of pathways
cury, on the other hand, affects the cen­ through the environment. Figure 6 shows
Figure 3. Because there is actually very little tral nervous system, and in severe cases a schematic drawing of mercury cycling in
mercury in most natural waters, scientists have irreversibly damages areas of the brain
to use extreme measures when sampling for an aquatic ecosystem. With the exception
mercury to avoid sample contamination from (fig. 5). The most well documented of isolated cases of known point sources,
their hands and clothing. This entails the use of cases of severe methylmercury poison­
lint-free suits, plastic gloves, hoods, and the ultimate source of mercury to most
stringently cleaned sampling equipment. ing are from Minamata Bay, Japan in aquatic ecosystems is deposition from the
1956 (industrial release of methyl-mer­ atmosphere, primarily associated with
cury) and in Iraq in 1971 (wheat treated rainfall. As depicted in this figure,
with a methylmercury fungicide). In atmospheric deposition contains the three
Hg each case, hundreds of people died, and principal forms of mercury, although the
Hg
thousands were affected, many with majority is as inorganic mercury (Hg2+,
permanent damage. In milder cases of ionic mercury). Once in surface water,
mercury poisoning, adults complain of
Hg
Hg

mercury enters a complex cycle in which

Hg
Hg reductions in motor skills and dulled one form can be converted to another. It
senses of touch, taste, and sight. These
Hg

Hg
can be brought to the sediments by particle
Hg

Hg
Hg

Hg

Hg
Hg MERCURY
Hg

Hg HEALTH EFFECTS
Hg
Hg
Hg

Hg
Deteriorates nervous system
Hg Hg
Impairs hearing, speech,
vision and gait
Hg

Hg
Hg Hg Hg
Hg Hg Causes involuntary muscle
Hg

movements

Corrodes skin and mucous

Hg
Hg
Hg

Hg
membranes
H
g

Hg

Causes chewing and

Hg
Hg swallowing to become
difficult

Hg

Figure 4. Mercury (Hg) biomagnifies from the

bottom to the top of the food chain. Even at very
low input rates to aquatic ecosystems that are Figure 5. All forms of mercury are toxic to humans, but
remote from point sources, biomagnification methylmercury is especially of concern because our bodies have
effects can result in mercury levels of a less well developed defense mechanism against this toxin.
toxicological concern. Effects on the nervous system are the most prevalent in humans.
settling and then later released by diffu­ tain bacteria play an important early human-related sources include: coal com­
sion or resuspension. It can enter the food role. Studies have shown that bacteria bustion, chlorine alkali processing, waste
chain, or it can be released back to the that process sulfate (SO4=) in the envi­ incineration, and metal processing. Best
atmosphere by volatilization. The con­ ronment take up mercury in its inorgan­ estimates to date suggest that human
centration of dissolved organic carbon ic form, and through metabolic activities have about doubled or tripled
(DOC) and pH have a strong effect on the processes convert it to methylmercury. the amount of mercury in the atmosphere,
ultimate fate of mercury in an ecosystem. The conversion of inorganic mercury to and the atmospheric burden is increasing
Studies have shown that for the same spe­ methylmercury is important for two rea­ by about 1.5 percent per year.
cies of fish taken from the same region, sons: (1) methylmercury is much more
increasing the acidity of the water (de­ toxic than inorganic mercury, and Has there always been mercury
creasing pH) and/or the DOC content gen­ (2) organisms require considerably lon­ contamination, or is this a recent
erally results in higher body burdens in ger to eliminate methylmercury. At this problem?
fish. Many scientists currently think that point, the methylmercury-containing This is a difficult question to answer, in
higher acidity and DOC levels bacteria may be consumed by the next part because of a lack of adequately pre­
enhance the mobility of mercury in the higher level in the food chain, or the served fish specimens of preindustrial age
environment, thus making it more likely bacteria may release the methylmercury to compare against contemporary samples.
to enter the food chain. Many of the to the water where it can quickly adsorb However, several lines of evidence from
details of the aquatic mercury cycle are to plankton, which are also consumed recent studies on Wisconsin lakes suggest
still unknown, however, and remain areas by the next level in the food chain. that increased emissions to the
of active research. atmosphere, and subsequent higher depo­
Where does atmospheric sition rates to lakes, likely translate into
How does mercury enter the mercury come from? higher mercury levels in fish. Although
food chain? There are many sources of mercury to the total amount of mercury delivered to
The exact mechanism(s) by which mercu­ the environment, both natural and man one of these lakes annually is very small
ry enters the food chain remain largely related. Natural sources include volca­ (fig. 2), it is strongly absorbed by organic
unknown, and probably vary among eco­ noes, natural mercury deposits, and vol­ material floating in the water such as
systems. We do know, however, that cer atilization from the ocean. The primary plankton or bacteria. These micro-organ-

AQUATIC MERCURY CYCLE

DEPOSITION DEPOSITION

VOLATILIZATION VOLATILIZATION
AND DEPOSITION AND DEPOSITION

Hg(0) DEME CH3HG DEPOSITION

Hg(II) DEPOSITION TION THY
LAT
D UC ION
AND RUNOFF
AND RUNOFF RE
OUTFLOW

Hg(II) CH3Hg

OUTFLOW OUTFLOW
METHYLATION

BIOMAGNIFICATION

SEDIMENTATION DIFFUSION/ SEDIMENTATION

SEDIMENT
RESUSPENSION

Hg(II) CH3Hg

Figure 6. Mercury cycling pathways in aquatic environments are very complex. The various forms of
mercury can be converted from one to the next; most important is the conversion to methylmercury
(CH3Hg+), the most toxic form. Ultimately, mercury ends up in the sediments, fish and wildlife, or evades
back to the atmosphere by volatilization. Reprinted with permission from Mercury Pollution: Integration
and Synthesis. Copyright Lewis Publishers, an imprint of CRC Press.
plankton or bacteria. These microorgan­ leadership role in aquatic mercury
isms are consumed by organisms higher in investigations. The USGS was a promi­
the food chain, or after dying, settle to the nent participant in studies conducted in
bottom of the lake and are incorporated northern Wisconsin, which largely form
into bottom sediments. Studies of sed­ the basis of current knowledge about
iment cores show that younger sediments mercury in aquatic ecosystems. With
deposited since industrialization have mer­ offices in every state, staffed with scien­
cury concentrations that are about 3-5 tists trained in the collection of water
times that of historical sediments. Thus, samples, the USGS can conduct studies
the fact that these sediments are primarily on mercury contamination throughout
CURRENTLY, THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
composed of dead microorganisms that the country. The ongoing National IS CONDUCTING MERCURY CYCLING
were once the bottom of the food chain Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) STUDIES IN THE FLORIDA EVERGLADES.
would suggest that modern levels of mer­ program provides additional infrastruc­
cury in the food chain are elevated over ture and expertise to gain a national per­
preindustrial times. spective on mercury contamination. A
recently established mercury research
If human-related emissions could laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin gives
be eliminated or reduced, how long USGS scientists the necessary analyti­
would it take for ecosystems to cal capability to conduct state-of-the-art
recover? contamination studies. Thus, the USGS
The only way to attempt to answer this is well situated to advance the under­
question is to incorporate all the best standing of mercury cycling in aquatic
information currently available on how ecosystems and to assist
mercury behaves in the environment into a resource management agencies in
computer model. Such a model was con­ developing strategies for reducing the
structed as part of the research effort on effects of mercury contamination.
northern Wisconsin lakes. Modeled sce­ D.P. Krabbenhoft and D.A. Rickert
narios predict that if emissions could be
reduced by 5 percent, it would take 8 years
before any change in fish concentrations
would be observed, and the decrease Suggested Reading
would be small. Mercury as a Global Pollutant (D.B.
Porcella, J.W. Huckabee, and B.
Wheatley editors), Water, Air and
The Role of the USGS in Soil Pollution, 80 (1-4), 1995.
Mercury Studies
As a national agency with a mission to
describe the nation’s water resources, the
USGS is uniquely positioned to provide a
CLEAN SAMPLING TECHNIQUES CAN BE
ADAPTED FOR USE IN ALMOST ANY
ENVIRONMENT, INCLUDING WETLANDS,
LAKES, AND STREAMS.

For more information contact:

District Chief
U.S. Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HAS CURRENTLY, THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
6417 Normandy Lane PARTICIPATED IN MERCURY IS CONDUCTING MERCURY CYCLING
Madison, WI 53719 CYCLING STUDIES IN NORTHERN STUDIES IN THE FLORIDA EVERGLADES.
WISCONSIN LAKES.
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey
Fact Sheet FS-216-95