11 Epra+Journals+14787

ISSN (Online): 2455-3662
EPRA International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (IJMR) - Peer Reviewed Journal

Volume: 9| Issue: 11| November2023|| Journal DOI: 10.36713/epra2013 || SJIF Impact Factor 2023: 8.224 || ISI Value: 1.188
IMPACT OF POLICE CYNICISM ON CRIME REPORTING:

INSIGHTS FROM ANGELES CITY, PHILIPPINES
Rhem Rick N. Corpuz1, Francis M. Almero2, Justin Kian B. Mendoza3,

Elle John C. Garcia4
1Faculty, College of Criminal Justice Education, Angeles University Foundation, Philippines
2 Student, College of Criminal Justice Education, Angeles University Foundation, Philippines
Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.36713/epra14787

DOI No: 10.36713/epra14787
ABSTRACT
This research delves into the intricate relationship between police cynicism and crime reporting behavior in Angeles City,
Philippines. It takes a comprehensive approach, aiming to identify both the factors that encourage and discourage crime reporting
while examining the influence of police cynicism. The research utilizes a mixed-methods design, encompassing a descriptive survey
and correlation research. The survey includes questions regarding individuals' attitudes towards the police, their willingness to report
crimes, and their perceptions of the police's effectiveness in combating crime. The correlation research specifically delves into the
connection between police cynicism and crime-reporting behavior, hypothesizing that higher levels of police cynicism correlate with
lower levels of crime reporting and vice versa. The findings of this study carry significant implications for improving crime reporting
behavior, ultimately contributing to enhanced safety in Angeles City. The research underscores the existence of generally positive
attitudes toward crime reporting, driven by an awareness of the seriousness of offenses, a sense of empowerment, and a shared
responsibility for community well-being. This positive disposition emphasizes the need for law enforcement agencies and
policymakers to consider community engagement strategies and initiatives that encourage reporting. The research also reveals that
discouraging factors do exist, particularly concerning non-traditional crimes, where fears and distrust in the justice system play a
significant role. While there is a prevailing trust in the local police's effectiveness, the weak correlation between positive police
perceptions and actual reporting behavior highlights the need for a holistic approach in policy development. Furthermore, the
positive correlation between discouragement and encouragement factors in reporting suggests potential policy implications, calling
for in-depth research to further comprehend the intricate dynamics influencing reporting behavior. The findings collectively
emphasize the multifaceted nature of public perceptions and reporting motivations, underlining the interconnectedness of these
elements. Policymakers are encouraged to adopt comprehensive approaches that foster community trust and enhance reporting
behavior, while researchers are urged to delve deeper into these nuanced relationships to inform evidence-based policies for public
safety and more effective law enforcement in Angeles City.
KEYWORDS: crime reporting, crime reporting behavior, police cynicism, encouraging and discouraging factors of crime
reporting
report incidents. This study aimed to investigate the factors that
I. INTRODUCTION encouraged or discouraged individuals from reporting offenses to
Reporting crimes worldwide has seen an upward trend in recent the Angeles City Pampanga police service precinct. The research
years, playing a pivotal role in crime more likely when the victims focused on understanding people's motivations when deciding to
perceive the crime as severe or a public concern. Awareness of report a crime, especially in times of rising crime rate reduction
available legal remedies and support services can also encourage and policy formulation. Several factors impact the decision to
reporting [1]. Conversely, several factors can discourage crime report a crime, including victims' perceptions of the criminal
victims from reporting, as highlighted by [2]. These include fear justice system, concerns for personal safety, and the availability
of retaliation or further violence, distrust in the justice system, and of resources [2].
the belief that their complaints won't be treated seriously. Victims
may also experience shame or embarrassment, which may deter [2] have identified various motivators for crime victims to report
reporting if they expect blame or criticism from others. incidents, such as access to support services, empowerment to
speak out, and trust in the criminal justice system.Through
The decision to report a crime is complex and influenced by a surveys and the analysis of community attitudes and behaviors,
multitude of factors. Victims of criminal activities should be this research shed light on the influences behind reporting
informed about available support resources and encouraged to decisions. Additionally, it provided insights into how local
2023 EPRA IJMR | http://eprajournals.com/ | Journal DOI URL: https://doi.org/10.36713/epra2013------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91
communities can collaborate more effectively with their police information, such as government statistics. Additionally, the
services to report and prevent crime. media should avoid sensationalizing crime reports and prioritize
fair and truthful coverage to foster a better understanding of the
Considerable discussion about crime reporting in the United actual state of crime in Europe.
States has involved the media, academia, and politics. Varying
levels of precision in crime reporting have raised concerns about High levels of lawlessness and insecurity in Asia hindered
the reliability and adequacy of the nation's crime statistics. All individual well-being and the region's progress. Prioritizing crime
levels of government need to address this issue. For instance, the control was crucial for any administration. To address this, the
FBI's Uniform Crime Reports (UCRs) were urged to improve criminal justice system needed to be aware of crimes. Undetected
accuracy as there was no consistent nationwide reporting standard crime had various negative consequences for victims and society
[3]. Furthermore, some data indicated that crime was often not [10]. Worldwide, there was growing interest in reporting crime
reported accurately in many areas [4]. This was likely due to rates, as unreported crimes could also harm victims and society
various factors, including the fear of retaliation, the cost and significantly. It was essential for victims or witnesses to contact
difficulty of reporting crimes, and public perceptions of crime [4]. the police to report victimization incidents. Without reporting
specific crimes, many offenders could not be found and punished,
The lack of reliable crime statistics had significant consequences. as a significant number of criminal acts went unreported [9].
As stated by Ruback et al. 2018 [3], it hindered law enforcement's Bourne 2016 [11] found that in many industrialized countries,
ability to allocate resources effectively and resulted in inaccurate only half of all crimes were reported to authorities, and this might
crime portrayals in the media. Furthermore, it complicated the be worse in less developed countries like the Philippines, with less
task of accurately gauging crime levels in different areas and effective criminal justice systems. In the United States, Loftin,
understanding the root causes of crime [4]. 2017 [4] noted that crimes with the highest percentages of going
unreported included domestic larceny (67%) and rape and sexual
To address this issue, it was crucial for all levels of government assault (65%).
to collect dependable data and rectify the problem of inaccurate
crime reporting. This could be achieved by establishing consistent China's authoritarian government and the lack of transparency in
nationwide reporting standards and adopting more efficient data its media and law enforcement had hindered accurate reporting of
collection methods [3]. Additionally, there was a need for better crimes. A United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
public education and awareness about the importance of reporting report stated that there were 8,000 to 10,000 homicides in China
crimes accurately [4]. annually, making it the second highest globally. However, the
actual number of killings was likely much higher because the
Statistics indicated that a significant portion of crimes in the UK Chinese government either didn't record many cases or
went unreported to authorities, which was becoming an increasing categorized them incorrectly [12].
concern. According to the British Crime Survey (BCS) from
March 2019, only 41% of violent crimes, 57% of domestic abuse The Chinese government tightly controlled the media, especially
incidents, and 70% of sexual offenses were reported to the police. concerning politically sensitive issues like human rights,
Notably, 70% of sexual offenses were reported. journalism, and religious minorities. This lack of media freedom
led to a lack of accurate reporting on criminal activity.
The fear of punishment deterred people from reporting crimes, Additionally, the Chinese criminal justice system lacked
especially victims of domestic violence who worried about further transparency, making it hard to access information about criminal
abuse or retaliation. A lack of trust in the police and doubts about cases and trial outcomes. Zhang et al. 2017 [13] also argued for
their seriousness also discouraged reporting. Underreporting of increased independent oversight of law enforcement to hold the
crime had serious consequences for victims and their police accountable for their actions. Consequently, there was a
communities, distorting crime rates and resource allocation. To need to inform the public about the extent of the crime problem
address this, law enforcement and agencies must build trust, in the nation. China's government, media, and criminal justice
provide support, and keep victims informed about their cases, system lacked transparency, making it challenging to report
which is vital for the criminal justice system (Sullivan [5]; crimes. While there had been some progress in recent years,
Ratcliffe [6]; Flatley [7]; Negrine & Stanyer [8]). significant efforts were still required to ensure the public could
access accurate and current information about criminal activity
Harrendorf et al. 2010 argued that European crime reporting often nationwide.
provided inaccurate and sensationalized information due to
inconsistent data collection and media exaggeration. This In the Philippines, a high prevalence of corruption and a lack of
discrepancy among European nations in recording crimes could trust in law enforcement made it challenging to accurately report
mislead the public about the true crime levels. To address this crimes. A 2018 survey by the Philippine Statistics Authority
issue, it was crucial for governments, media, and stakeholders to revealed that a staggering 87.6 percent of respondents did not
ensure that crime reporting was factual and unbiased. This could report any crimes to the police, with only 6.8 percent doing so.
be achieved through transparent data sources and reliable
This low reporting rate could be attributed to a lack of faith in the availability, on a scale from 1 to 10, thereby providing a
police due to widespread instances of abuse and corruption [14]. quantitative understanding of their importance.
The government's response to crime reports had been inadequate. Moreover, the utility of descriptive survey research extended to
The Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) found the realm of exploring the subjective experiences of individuals
that the police force struggled to respond promptly to complaints who had engaged in crime reporting. By eliciting responses
due to resource and workforce shortages [15]. Additionally, the related to perceptions of police cynicism, motivations for
investigation and prosecution processes were lengthy and reporting crimes, and factors discouraging reporting, researchers
inefficient, leading to a lack of accountability and justice for were able to unearth a nuanced understanding of the dynamics
victims—a critical issue as these systems were meant to protect between individuals and the criminal justice system. This
victims. To address the problem of underreporting crimes, the approach helped reveal how these experiences shaped the
Philippine government needed to overhaul its approach to law attitudes and behaviors of individuals concerning crime reporting.
enforcement. This should involve enhancing the training of law
enforcement personnel and increasing investment in the physical Furthermore, the research undertook the ambitious task of
infrastructure of law enforcement agencies. Additionally, investigating the broader societal and cultural contexts that
measures should be taken to combat corruption and boost public influenced crime reporting and the prevalence of police
confidence in the judicial system. skepticism. This was accomplished by evaluating societal norms,
resource availability, and other sociocultural determinants that
Past researchers, including Lancaster in 2013 and the National affected reporting behavior.
Home Security Month in 2016, expressed concern about
unreported crimes in the Philippines, even though we don't have Descriptive survey research incorporated descriptive correlation
exact numbers. Goudriaan in 2006 highlighted that governments as a statistical methodology to quantitatively measure the
emphasize improving crime reporting because accurate statistics relationships between various factors. This statistical approach
are essential for effective crime control strategies. aided in unraveling the complex connections between elements
that either encouraged or discouraged crime reporting and the
This study aimed to answer two questions: (1) What obstacles level of cynicism exhibited by the police. For instance, it
stopped people from reporting crimes in the greater Los Angeles permitted researchers to investigate the relationship between
area? and (2) What factors encouraged people to report crimes in police behavior and public cynicism, leveraging data sourced
the City of Angeles region? It provided both absolute and relative from police departments and public surveys.
reasons for why residents chose to report crimes to the authorities.
To enhance the relationship between police departments and the B. Population and Sampling Scheme
community, it was crucial for these departments to understand The study was conducted within the bounds of Angeles City,
why citizens didn't report crimes in the first place. Moreover, this Pampanga, which boasted a population of 411,634 residents
research contributed to the limited literature on what motivated according to the 2015 Census conducted by the Philippine
citizens to report crimes to the authorities. Statistics Authority in 2020. To ensure the robustness of the
study's findings, the researchers used a statistical software
II. METHODS AND PROCEDURE package known as G-Power. This software, renowned for its
A. Research Method analytical prowess, was instrumental in the calculation of the
The study uses descriptive survey research to address an array of requisite sample sizes, particularly in the context of the Pearson
research inquiries, prominently centered on the multifaceted product-moment correlation coefficient tests.
realm of Impact of Police Cynicism on Crime Reporting: Insights
from Angeles City, Philippines. This methodological approach In a research context, statistical power is the bedrock of the
facilitated data acquisition from a representative sample of researcher's ability to detect meaningful relationships between
respondents, affording researchers the opportunity to scrutinize variables. In the case of Pearson product-moment correlation
these data for discernible patterns and insights. coefficient tests, it was imperative to ascertain the sample size
required to confidently discern whether this coefficient
Descriptive survey research served as a valuable lens through significantly deviated from zero. The required statistical power
which researchers could investigate the intricate interplay of was a fundamental consideration in this endeavor. Furthermore,
factors such as community trust, fear of retribution, and resource the software also facilitated the determination of the necessary
availability, all of which exerted their influence on law sample size for effect size testing in scenarios where a correlation
enforcement officers' conduct when it came to reporting crimes. was already established. The result of this computational analysis
Notably, the employment of surveys allowed for a systematic revealed that a sample size of 84 was deemed sufficient to detect
exploration of these factors by quantifying their significance. For a medium effect size (typically considered as 0.3) in a Pearson
instance, respondents were asked to evaluate and rate factors, moment correlation. Importantly, this sample size exceeded the
including fear of retaliation, trust in the police, and resource benchmark of 81, further reinforcing the study's capacity to detect
statistically significant correlations at a significance level of 0.05.
The sampling strategy adopted for the study was the Cluster presence of language barriers impeding effective communication
Sampling Method. This strategy was meticulously designed to represented another exclusion criterion. Non-resident police
ensure the representation of the intended demographic of the officers or emergency service personnel, although working within
study. Specifically, the researchers targeted individuals aged the administrative purview of Angeles City, but not residing there,
between 18 and 60, encompassing both genders, who had were considered non-essential to the research. Lastly, community
experienced unreported crime and were residents of Angeles City, leaders, activists, or advocates residing outside Angeles City, and
Pampanga. Cluster sampling, a well-established method in the those who did not exert a direct influence on crime reporting
research arsenal, facilitated the division of the city's population within the city, were excluded from the research. These
into geographically defined clusters or groups. These clusters meticulous exclusion criteria worked synergistically to ensure
were then subjected to random selection, ultimately forming part that the research remained sharply focused on cases and
of the study's sample. This strategic approach ensured an accurate individuals tightly aligned with its research objectives.
representation of the population and provided a precise
understanding of the factors that influenced crime reporting D. Ethical Considerations
within Angeles City. The ethical considerations underpinning the research on "Impact
of Police Cynicism on Crime Reporting: Insights from Angeles
C. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria City, Philippines" were of paramount significance and were
The inclusion criteria of the study, which probed "Impact of handled with unwavering diligence. Recognizing the utmost
Police Cynicism on Crime Reporting: Insights from Angeles City, importance of safeguarding participant well-being, the
Philippines", cast a wide net to encompass a diverse spectrum of researchers meticulously orchestrated a framework that
individuals and groups. The comprehensive list encompassed all prioritized participant security, confidentiality, and fundamental
residents of Angeles City, irrespective of their citizenship rights. A set of concrete ethical principles underpinned every facet
status—be they citizens or foreign nationals residing within the of the research.
city. Victims of various categories of crimes, spanning theft,
assault, vandalism, and others occurring within Angeles City To initiate the research process, the researchers secured informed
during a specified time frame, were regarded as pertinent subjects consent from the participants, ensuring that they were aware of
of study. Moreover, individuals who had witnessed crimes in the research's objectives, methodologies, and potential outcomes.
Angeles City were deemed significant contributors. The inclusion This process allowed participants to make an informed decision
criteria extended to include police personnel, spanning police regarding their involvement in the study.
officers, law enforcement officials, and other personnel within the
purview of Angeles City's police department. Also, emergency The commitment to maintaining the confidentiality of the
service personnel, ranging from emergency medical services participants and the data collected was unwavering. This tenet
personnel to operators of emergency hotlines such as 911 within extended to stringent data protection measures and access control
Angeles City, were considered as relevant stakeholders in the to safeguard the privacy of the participants and the integrity of the
research. Lastly, community leaders, activists, and advocates who data.
actively engaged in activities aimed at promoting crime reporting
or related initiatives within Angeles City were pivotal in shaping Moreover, the responsible dissemination of the research findings
the research's comprehensive perspective. was integral to the ethical compass guiding this study. The
researchers took meticulous care in presenting and disseminating
In contrast, the exclusion criteria for the study established a set of their findings in a responsible manner, avoiding sensationalism
parameters to maintain the research's focus and relevance. and distortion, and adhering to scientific integrity.
Specifically, individuals who were not residents of Angeles City
were categorically excluded from the study, given that the Recognizing the potential dangers that might arise due to the
primary focus was centered on city residents. Cases concerning research findings, particularly in cases where the findings could
crimes perpetrated by non-residents in Angeles City were be employed to the detriment of individuals, the researchers were
excluded, except in cases where the involvement of city residents diligent in warning the participants about these potential risks.
was direct and substantial. Incidents that did not constitute
criminal activities, such as accidents or non-criminal disputes, Additionally, the researchers were committed to ensuring that
were clearly delineated as beyond the scope of this research. their research findings would translate into ethical policies and
Cases characterized by incomplete or insufficient data related to interventions. The insights generated from the study held the
the crime, the reporting process, or the individuals involved were potential to influence policy decisions and community initiatives
deemed unsuitable for inclusion to preserve the integrity of the aimed at improving crime reporting and police behavior. The
data. Furthermore, individuals who declined participation in the ethical underpinning of the research extended to the advocacy for
study or failed to provide informed consent were excluded. policies that would enhance the lives and safety of individuals
Incarcerated individuals within correctional facilities during the within Angeles City.
study period were set apart due to the significant divergence in
their circumstances compared to the broader population. The
E. Research Instrument F. VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENT

The research instrument employed in this study was meticulously To fortify the research instrument's validity, a two-pronged
designed to gather comprehensive information concerning the approach was employed. The research team conducted a pilot
factors that influence the underreporting of crimes within Angeles study using the same survey instrument, engaging in a meticulous
City. The survey questionnaire was structured in a manner that review of the survey questions. This preliminary investigation
encouraged respondents to provide detailed responses, enabling a aimed to ensure that the questions were not only relevant to the
deep dive into the various facets of crime reporting. research's objectives but also clear, concise, and non-leading. It
also afforded the researchers an opportunity to make necessary
The survey encompassed a range of inquiries, classifiable into modifications to the survey tool, thereby ensuring its
three distinctive questionnaires, each serving a specific purpose. dependability and accuracy for the main survey.
The first questionnaire probed into the discouraging factors of
crime reporting, seeking to unveil the elements that might cast Furthermore, content validation was undertaken as a key facet of
doubt on the reliability of the police. It also explored the level of the validation process. Content validation involved an exhaustive
assistance that the police offered to society. By asking participants review of the research questions, study design, and instruments to
to express their agreement or disagreement with statements such ensure their suitability and relevance. The comprehensive
as "The police would not believe me, “If I reported a burglary at examination extended to the research's content, aligning it with
my house, the police would not investigate," "I do not believe the the objectives and contextual appropriateness. Additionally, the
police are approachable," and others, the questionnaire aimed to researchers conducted a thorough review of the existing literature
gauge the attitudes of participants toward crime reporting. All on the subject matter, thereby ensuring that the research's
these responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale, conclusions were comprehensive and aligned with current
facilitating the quantitative measurement of participants' attitudes. developments in the field.
The second questionnaire scrutinized the encouraging factors of In a notable reference, Mbewu et al. 2021[2] utilized a similar
crime reporting. It inquired about factors that might induce approach, combining content validation with pilot testing to
citizens to consider the police as reliable. Like the questionnaire validate their questionnaire. This validation process underscored
on discouraging factors, it also examined the assistance provided the precision and reliability of the questionnaire, rendering it
by the police to society. Respondents were requested to indicate suitable for their study. Similarly, the research on motivating and
their agreement or disagreement with statements such as dissuading factors for crime reporting in Angeles City leveraged
"Reporting crime to seek justice," "Reporting crime to recover these validation strategies to ensure that the research instrument
lost property," "Reporting crime to create a safer community," was aligned with the research objectives and methodologies.
and others. This part of the research facilitated an exploration of
the extent to which various factors motivated or discouraged G. Reliability of Research Instruments
people from reporting crimes. Similar to the first questionnaire, In the pursuit of research instrument reliability, the research team
these responses were measured using a five-point Likert scale. adhered to rigorous standards. A pilot test was conducted,
engaging a small group of 50 inhabitants from the same area under
The third questionnaire was dedicated to the study of police study, namely, the Mthatha South Africa Police Service Precinct.
cynicism in the public sphere. It sought to assess the attitudes of This pilot test allowed the team to assess the survey's
participants toward cynicism in the police. Participants were effectiveness and identify any issues or ambiguities before its
presented with statements such as "The police in this area would broader administration to the larger population. Importantly, the
treat you with respect if you had contact with them," "The police pilot test was conducted through face-to-face interviews,
in this area treat everyone fairly regardless of who they are," and employing the very same survey instrument that was slated for the
others. These statements were employed to investigate the level main survey.
of cynicism held by participants and their perceptions of the
police. The responses to these statements were recorded on a five- The reliability study focused on the elements related to
point Likert scale, thereby facilitating the measurement of discouraging and encouraging factors that influenced crime
participants' attitudes and feelings in the context of crime reporting. Notably, for discouraging factors, all elements
reporting and police cynicism. displayed a reliability coefficient exceeding 0.5, signaling a
satisfactory level of internal consistency (Cronbach Alpha =
It is crucial to underline that this instrument consisted of three 0.825). Similarly, for the encouraging factors, the Cronbach's
distinct questionnaires, each serving a specific facet of the Alpha coefficient demonstrated robust internal consistency and
research's objectives. The deployment of a five-point Likert scale reliability with a high value of 0.856.
allowed for the quantitative measurement of participants'
responses, facilitating robust data analysis. Cronbach's alpha, a standard statistical measure for assessing the
internal consistency and reliability of surveys or measurement
tools, was employed to validate these reliability findings. Its
value, ranging from 0 to 1, provided a numerical gauge of
reliability, with higher values signaling greater reliability. In the The methodical approach of this research, anchored in
context of this study, the overall survey on "Impact of Police comprehensive data collection, robust statistical methodologies,
Cynicism on Crime Reporting: Insights from Angeles City, and ethical considerations, served as a powerful framework for
Philippines", exhibited a high level of reliability, as evidenced by delving into the intricate dynamics of crime reporting and police
a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.9. This outcome suggested that cynicism within Angeles City, Philippines. The structured design,
the survey items consistently measured the same construct, validation, and reliability of the research instrument, alongside
reinforcing the research's credibility and integrity. ethical principles and statistical rigor, collectively contributed to
the research's coherence, comprehensiveness, and integrity.
H. Statistical Analysis of Data
The thesis, titled "Impact of Police Cynicism on Crime Reporting: III. RESULTS
Insights from Angeles City, Philippines”. Using a Descriptive A. Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Survey," was executed through a systematic two-step process. Table 1. Sex
First and foremost, the research team devoted significant effort to Sex Frequency Percent
Male 34 40.5
creating a survey instrument with questions that were concise,
Female 46 54.8
clear, and non-leading, aligning with the research objectives. This Other 4 4.8
was a pivotal phase, ensuring that the data collected would be both Total 84 100.0
robust and meaningful. The questions were carefully framed to The survey comprised a total of 84 respondents. Among them, 34
probe the multifaceted dimensions of the research's objectives. identified as male (40.5%), 46 as female (54.8%), and 4 as other
(4.8%). The total number of respondents was 84, accounting for
Subsequently, the second step in the research process involved 100% of the sample.
administering the survey through face-to-face methods. This
approach adhered to the highest ethical standards, guaranteeing Table 2. Age of the Respondents
an ethically sound and principled distribution process. The face- Age Range Frequency Percent
to-face administration allowed for a direct and interactive 18-23 years old 65 77.4
engagement with a large pool of potential respondents, thereby 24-29 years old 9 10.7
30-34 years old 4 4.8
enhancing the quality and reliability of the data collected. 35-39 years old 2 2.4
40-44 years old 2 2.4
The research also benefited from the application of the Pearson 45-49 years old 1 1.2
Moment Correlation, a statistical methodology renowned for its 50-54 years old 1 1.2
ability to unveil valuable insights into public perceptions and Total 84 100.0
attitudes concerning crime reporting and police cynicism. By
leveraging the Likert scale, the research facilitated the The age distribution of the respondents shows that 18–23-year-
interpretation of the correlation's results, which were elucidated olds constituted the largest age group, with 65 respondents
within a specific scale range: (77.4%). The 24-29 age group comprised 9 respondents (10.7%),
- 5: Strongly Agree (corresponding to a Likert scale range of 4.51 while the 30-34 age group had 4 respondents (4.8%). The age
- 5.00) groups of 35-39 and 40-44 each had 2 respondents (2.4%).
- 4: Agree (corresponding to a Likert scale range of 3.51 - 4.50) Additionally, 1 respondent (1.2%) each belonged to the age
- 3: Neutral (corresponding to a Likert scale range of 2.51 - 3.50) groups 45-49 and 50-54. Clearly, the 18–23 age group dominated
- 2: Disagree (corresponding to a Likert scale range of 1.51 - 2.50) the survey's age demographic.
- 1: Strongly Disagree (corresponding to a Likert scale range of
1.00 - 1.50) Table 3. Civil Status of the Respondents
Civil Status Frequency Percent
This scale allowed for a nuanced interpretation of the research's Single 72 85.7
Married 9 10.7
findings, reflecting the degree of agreement or disagreement
Seperated 4 1.2
among participants. The thorough application of the Pearson Widowed 2 2.4
Moment Correlation and the Likert scale represented robust tools Total 84 100.0
for the research, shedding light on public perceptions and attitudes
in a quantifiable manner.
All 84 respondents provided information about their civil status.
The majority reported as single (85.7%), followed by married
Moreover, the research drew on the table presenting a
(10.7%), separated (1.2%), and widowed (2%). The cumulative
demographic breakdown of the population across various
responses added up to 100%.
barangays in Angeles City, Philippines, as of 2015. This statistical
data formed an essential backdrop for the research, enabling the
contextual interpretation of the research's findings.

Table 4. Among the 84 respondents, 25 respondents (29.8%) reported

Educational Attainment Frequency Percent earning less than PHP5,000, 10 respondents (11.9%) reported
Didn’t Finish High School 4 4.8
Didn’t Finish High School, but 2 2.4
earning between PHP5,000 and PHP9,999, and 1 respondent
completed a technical/vocational (1.2%) reported earning between PHP125,000 and PHP149,999.
program This data suggests that a significant portion of respondents falls
High School Graduate or GED 9 10.7 within the lower income range.
(General Education Diploma)
Less than 2 Years of College 7 8.3
2 Years of College or 9 10.7 This comprehensive demographic profile provides valuable
more/including associate degree or insights into the composition of the survey's respondents, helping
equivalent to contextualize the survey results within the specified
College graduate (4- or 5-year 36 42.9 demographic parameters.
program)
Master’s degree (or other post- 16 19.0
graduate training) Table 7. Indicators for Discouraging Factors of Crime Reporting Behavior
Total 1 1.2
The respondents displayed diverse educational backgrounds. A
total of 4 respondents (4.8%) did not finish high school, 2
respondents (2.4%) completed a technical/vocational program, 9
respondents (10.7%) were high school graduates, and 7
respondents (8.3%) had completed both high school and a
technical/vocational program. Furthermore, 36 respondents
(42.9%) had 2 or more years of college, including an associate
degree or equivalent, and 16 respondents (19.0%) were college
graduates (4- or 5-year program). Only 1 respondent (1.2%) held
a master's degree.
Table 5. Employment Status of the Respondents Table 7. This discussion presents the results of a survey that
explores public perceptions of discouragement factors in
reporting crimes to the police and their implications for public
policy. Through the analysis of survey data, this research seeks to
provide a comprehensive and logical understanding of how
people view these factors, considering the extent of
discouragement, the standard deviation, and the variance in their
responses.
The survey collected responses from participants, revealing that

The 84 respondents had varied employment statuses. the mean response was 3.92, suggesting a consensus among
Approximately 15 respondents (17.9%) worked full-time for pay, respondents who either agreed or strongly agreed with the
9 respondents (10.7%) worked part-time, 21 respondents (25%) statements related to discouragement factors. The standard
were not currently employed, 5 respondents (6%) identified as deviation, standing at 0.64, indicates moderate variation, while
homemakers, and 34 respondents (40.5%) selected other the variance of 0.41 underscores that respondents shared a
employment statuses. The responses encompassed a wide range common perspective on these discouragement factors.
of occupations, with no single occupation dominating, reflecting
the diversity of respondents' situations. These findings align with established research on public
Table 6. Income of the Respondents perceptions of discouragement measures in crime reporting. Past
studies consistently show public support for these measures, as
individuals often perceive them as beneficial. People's reluctance
to report non-traditional crimes, such as domestic violence or
sexual offenses, has been linked to their fear of retaliation and
distrust in the justice system (Kelling & Wilson, [16]; Roberts,
[17]). Our findings are therefore consistent with existing literature
in this field.
Discouragement factors refer to specific policies designed to add

complexity to the crime reporting process. While these policies
make reporting more challenging, their aim is to reduce false
reports and confirm the genuine intent of the reporting individual.

A clear example is requiring individuals to sign affidavits These findings align with existing research, suggesting that a
affirming their voluntary reporting, which adds an additional substantial majority of individuals possess an intrinsic motivation
layer of authentication to the process. to report crimes and actively engage in the criminal justice
process. Various elements contribute to this willingness,
The survey findings hold substantial implications for public encompassing an elevated awareness of the gravity of specific
policy in the realm of crime reporting, including reducing crimes, a heightened sense of empowerment in contributing to
unnecessary investigations, saving valuable resources, and personal safety, and a shared responsibility for the community's
lowering fear of retaliation or judgment among reporting welfare. Empirical studies, such as those conducted by Heredia-
individuals. To harness these implications, public awareness González et al. 2022 [18] and Boateng 2018 [19], corroborate this
campaigns are needed to educate people about crime reporting assertion.
discouragement factors and destigmatize the act of reporting
crimes. Furthermore, the findings can inform the development of To obtain a comprehensive understanding of positive attitudes
policies and programs tailored to address the unique challenges toward crime reporting, a multifaceted approach was employed.
and deterrents faced by individuals in specific contexts. This included the use of focus groups, structured interviews, and
surveys. Focus groups and interviews provided valuable insights
This research underscores public support for discouragement into the language participants used when discussing factors that
measures in crime reporting, reinforcing the need for evidence- encourage crime reporting, offering qualitative depth to our
based policy development. It emphasizes the importance of understanding of motivations.
community engagement in enhancing safety and aligns with the
findings of prior studies (Kelling & Wilson, [16]; Roberts, [17]). Survey questions were thoughtfully designed to explore attitudes
These findings are not only valuable for shaping future policies toward various reporting methods, including traditional and
but also for fostering a reporting environment that is supportive, online channels. The results shed light on preferred reporting
efficient, and conducive to community well-being. mechanisms, with motivations ranging from community
protection and safety to a shared responsibility for safeguarding
Table 8. Indicators for Encouraging factors in Crime reporting Behavior society.
The positive attitudes uncovered through this research bear

significant implications for both policy development and further
research. The findings underscore the necessity of policies and
initiatives aimed at promoting reporting. These may encompass
public awareness campaigns, incentive structures, or streamlined
reporting procedures.
The impact of positive attitudes on actual crime reporting rates

necessitates further investigation. It is also crucial to explore
which interventions, such as providing psychological support to
victims or ensuring reporter anonymity, exert the most substantial
influence on reporting and prevention. These insights can
substantially inform policy decisions in the realm of crime
reporting.
Table 8. The findings presented in Table 8 offer a comprehensive
assessment of public attitudes regarding the factors that encourage Moreover, an international perspective offers insights into
reporting of crimes. This discussion provides an in-depth and contextual variations in attitudes toward crime reporting and their
logically structured analysis of the survey results, substantiating correlation with reporting behavior. For instance, a study
the findings with relevant literature. conducted in Mexico Heredia-González et al., 2022 [18] found a
positive association between positive attitudes and a higher
The data in Table 8 indicates a substantial consensus among likelihood of reporting crimes. In contrast, research within a U.S.
respondents, with a noteworthy mean score of 4.28 out of 5, university context Boateng, 2018 [19] indicated that individuals
signifying strong endorsement of factors that promote crime with negative attitudes were more likely to report crimes. These
reporting. This consensus is further supported by the low standard cross-cultural findings emphasize the importance of considering
deviation (0.66) and variance (0.43), denoting limited variation in context-specific factors and perceptions in comprehending crime
responses. In summary, individuals collectively recognize the reporting attitudes and behavior.
significance of encouraging crime reporting.
This research underscores the existence of generally positive
attitudes towards crime reporting. The motivations behind these
attitudes appear to be multifaceted and encompass a shared sense
of responsibility for community safety, an awareness of the and accountability. The positive views towards law enforcement
gravity of certain crimes, and a desire for personal empowerment. offer a wealth of research opportunities. For instance, the impact
These insights provide a robust foundation for crafting effective of emerging technologies, like facial recognition, on public trust
crime reporting encouragement methods, which can be is a ripe area for investigation. Evaluating the effectiveness of
instrumental in enhancing public safety and strengthening law training programs aimed at equipping officers with necessary
enforcement efforts. skills and knowledge is another valuable avenue. Furthermore,
Table 9. Indicators for Cynicism measures research can explore innovative strategies for strengthening the
bonds between the public and law enforcement.
Cross-cultural insights add a layer of complexity. For instance, a

survey conducted by Bourne 2016 [11] in Jamaica showed that a
majority of respondents held a favorable view of the police, with
67% considering them "reliable and trustworthy." This
demonstrates that positive views of law enforcement are not
confined to a specific context or region.
However, it is essential to acknowledge that variations exist. In a

U.S.-based study by Griego 2021 [21], respondents, while
expressing positive overall opinions of the police, displayed
apathy toward their role in crime prevention and believed the
Table 9. presents a comprehensive summary of findings from a police were insensitive to lower- socioeconomic status
survey that aimed to evaluate public sentiments towards local law populations. This highlights the nuanced nature of public
enforcement. In this discussion, we will analyze and interpret perceptions and underscores the need for an in-depth examination
these results in a coherent, logical, and professional manner. of the factors that influence these perceptions.
These findings are not only rooted in literature but also hold
critical implications for future research and policy considerations. The data summarized in Table 9 underscores a generally
favorable view of local police. Public trust in law enforcement is
The survey encompassed 12 questions designed to assess public deeply rooted, underpinned by the perceived effectiveness and
agreement with various statements about the local police. The impartiality of police agencies. This trust is not only a testament
mean score of 3.81 suggests that, on average, respondents held a to the work of law enforcement but also a valuable resource that
positive view of these statements, indicative of a favorable overall can be nurtured to enhance community safety and policing
opinion of the local police. Moreover, the data reveals a practices. Researchers and policymakers have the responsibility
remarkable degree of consensus among the participants, with to continue exploring the multifaceted dimensions of public trust
small variances and standard deviations, indicating limited in law enforcement and to employ the findings to foster stronger,
divergence in opinions. more accountable, and community-oriented policing.
These findings align with a substantial body of research that Table 10. Significant Relationship between Encouraging Factors and
indicates people generally hold a positive perception of law Perception about the Police.
enforcement agencies, particularly in the context of crime
reporting. These positive perceptions stem from various factors
such as the police's role as essential first responders equipped with
necessary resources and training. Their commitment to
impartiality and the provision of efficient crime reporting
processes further contribute to this trust. These factors have been
well-documented in the literature and have a substantial impact
on public trust [20].
Capitalizing on these favorable perceptions, law enforcement

agencies have several avenues to bolster public trust and enhance
their services. Periodically measuring public trust to monitor Table 10. presents the results of a study investigating the
trends and identify areas in need of attention is a promising correlation between factors that encourage crime reporting
approach. Fostering robust community-police relationships is behavior and individuals' perceptions of the police. In this
crucial to fortify trust, emphasizing the significance of discussion, we will delve into these findings, drawing upon
community policing models. Continuously reviewing and established literature, and outline their implications for
enhancing officer training programs can maintain and improve policymakers and future research. These results shed light on the
public trust by ensuring the highest standards of professionalism
complexity of crime reporting behavior and underline the need for for future research and policymaking efforts, advocating for a
a multifaceted approach. nuanced understanding of crime reporting behavior.
The data reveals a Pearson correlation coefficient of .135 between Table 11. Significant Relationship between Discouraging Factors and
"Encouraging Factors of Crime Reporting Behavior" and Perception about the Police
"Perception about the Police." This coefficient, while statistically
significant, reflects a notably weak relationship. The Sig. (2-
tailed) value of .728 further indicates the limited reliability of this
connection. These statistics suggest that various other factors
have a more substantial influence on individuals' decisions to
report crimes.
These findings align with existing literature in the field. Bolger

et al. (2021) found that individuals with a positive perception of
the police were more inclined to report crimes, indicating a
correlation between police perception and reporting behavior.
Similarly, Bell's extensive survey in 2016 involving 3,132
participants revealed that increased confidence in the police was
associated with higher rates of crime reporting.
Table 11 presents research findings regarding the intricate
However, it is crucial to interpret these results within their relationship between individuals' perceptions of the police and
broader context. Yoon's study (2015) noted a slight increase in the factors that discourage them from reporting crimes. This
reporting rates linked to changes in police perception and study, employing a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.409),
improved victim services. Nevertheless, this study emphasized illuminates a connection that merits thorough investigation due
that a positive view of the police, on its own, does not strongly to its substantial real-world implications. This discussion will
determine crime reporting. comprehensively analyze these findings, incorporating relevant
literature, and outline the broad implications this relationship
Adding depth to this perspective, Jackson et al. 2021 [22] reported holds for law enforcement, community engagement, and
an insignificant correlation between police perception and crime avenues for future research.
reporting in their research. Furthermore, Xie and Baumer 2019
[23] highlighted that even when police offered victim services, The Pearson Correlation coefficient of 0.409 suggests a
reporting rates remained low due to a lack of trust in the police. moderate positive correlation between individuals' "Perception
about the Police" and their encounters with "Discouraging
The findings from Table 10 emphasize a crucial insight – while a Factors of Crime Reporting Behavior." This points to the idea
weak link exists between encouraging factors for crime reporting that individuals who hold more favorable views of the police are
and perceptions about the police, this is not a reliable indicator of less likely to face significant obstacles when contemplating
reporting behavior. To strengthen this relationship, it is reporting a crime. While the statistical significance level (Sig. =
imperative to account for other influential elements, including 0.241) in relation to the sample size (N=10) may not be
socio-economic status, safety concerns, and the broader conventionally strong, this discovery underscores the need for
community's opinions regarding law enforcement. further exploration given its tangible real-world implications.
Policymakers seeking to enhance crime reporting should take These findings harmonize with existing research that has
away a fundamental message from these findings: strategies unveiled the nuanced relationship between public perceptions of
cannot solely rely on changing perceptions of the police. Instead, law enforcement and their crime reporting behavior. A positive
a holistic approach is required. This encompasses raising public perception of the police often corresponds to lower levels of
awareness about the importance of reporting, providing reluctance in reporting crimes. This alignment implies that
comprehensive victim resources and support, and improving the individuals with a favorable view of the police anticipate more
overall responsiveness and accountability of the criminal justice effective crime handling, which includes attributes like
system. The research findings underscore that crime reporting responsiveness and successful resolution. Conversely, when
behavior is intricately influenced by a range of interconnected individuals perceive the police as unresponsive or ineffective,
factors, necessitating a well-rounded, evidence-based approach. they may exhibit decreased motivation to report crimes,
potentially leading to reduced reporting rates and elevated public
The results presented in Table 10, substantiated by the existing safety concerns. This phenomenon, often termed the
literature, highlight the intricate and multifaceted nature of the "confidence gap," is notably pronounced in disadvantaged
relationship between encouraging factors for crime reporting and communities and can heighten tensions between citizens and
perceptions of the police. These findings provide a clear roadmap
law enforcement, further stifling crime reporting. Addressing Table 12, which is presented below, showcases the results of a
this challenge necessitates a collaborative approach between research study examining the correlation between "Discouraging
communities and law enforcement, fostering trust and cultivating Factors of Crime Reporting Behavior" and "Encouraging Factors
a conducive environment for reporting. These research findings of Crime Reporting Behavior." This discussion provides a
emphasize the substantial impact of public perceptions of the thorough and logical analysis of these findings, substantiated by
police on their willingness to report crimes. They underscore the relevant academic literature, and elucidates the implications of
importance of nurturing positive relations between law this correlation concerning policy formulation and the direction
enforcement and the community to encourage reporting. of future research in this domain.
Promoting reporting requires a concerted effort to highlight
successful resolutions and foster a culture of reporting rather The Pearson Correlation coefficient of 0.682 reveals a moderate
than silence. Achieving this entails community outreach positive correlation between the variables "Discouraging Factors
initiatives, educational programs, and proactive engagement by of Crime Reporting Behavior" and "Encouraging Factors of
law enforcement agencies. Crime Reporting Behavior." This signifies that these variables
tend to move in tandem, with one rising or falling in conjunction
Furthermore, the results underscore the urgency of proactive with the other. Nevertheless, it is essential to underscore that this
measures by police departments to bolster public trust. Strategies association does not attain statistical significance, as the p-value
such as community engagement, officer training, and diversity (0.043) exceeds the conventional alpha level of 0.05.
and inclusion initiatives can markedly influence public Consequently, we cannot assert with statistical confidence that
perceptions of law enforcement. Public outreach activities, this relationship transcends random chance. In other words, the
including town halls and community forums, can further boost null hypothesis prevails, and we cannot affirm, with statistical
transparency and accountability, thereby enhancing the rigor, the existence of a connection between these crime reporting
community's trust in the police. factors.
The intricate relationship between public perceptions of the Understanding the nature of this correlation is crucial. In a
police and crime reporting behavior warrants further positively correlated relationship, both variables demonstrate
exploration. Future research should encompass a blend of simultaneous increases or decreases. This indicates that when one
qualitative and quantitative studies to delve into the multifaceted variable experience an upswing or downturn, the other exhibits a
factors that shape confidence in law enforcement and how these corresponding trajectory. Conversely, negatively correlated
factors influence reporting behavior. Measuring and interpreting variables display inverse movements, where an increase in one
public sentiment regarding law enforcement and devising variable triggers a decrease in the other, and vice versa. This
strategies for building trust within local communities should be comprehension is pivotal for grasping the interplay between
the central focus of forthcoming research endeavors. variables and their mutual influence.
The findings presented in Table 11, substantiated by existing The revelation of correlations between variables carries far-
literature, unveil the complex and multifaceted nature of the reaching implications for policy making. Positive correlations
connection between public perceptions of the police and imply that changes in one variable are mirrored by corresponding
discouraging factors for reporting crimes. These results offer shifts in the other. This insight has the potential to significantly
vital insights and underscore the importance of a holistic inform policy decisions. For instance, if an enhanced accessibility
approach to enhance public safety, bridge the "confidence gap," to healthcare services demonstrates a positive influence on public
and stimulate reporting behavior within communities. health, policymakers are justified in allocating increased funding
for healthcare infrastructure. Similarly, if a consistent reduction
Table 12. Significant Relationship between Encouraging Factors and in crime rates is observed with a decrease in poverty,
Discouraging Factors in Crime Reporting Behavior policymakers can craft targeted anti-poverty measures.
Furthermore, these findings provide a gateway to deeper

exploration of causal relationships between variables.
Researchers can delve into the factors underlying these
correlations, constructing more nuanced models through rigorous
investigation. These insights are invaluable for assessing the
impact of specific policy interventions on variables and guiding
evidence-based policymaking.
In support of the positive correlation finding, a study by Chernew

et al. (2005), titled "Does Uninsured Rate Increase with Higher
Premiums?" demonstrates a statistically significant positive
correlation between average family premiums for employer-
sponsored insurance in a state and the percentage of uninsured 1. Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch comprehensive
individuals within that state. As average premiums increased, the public awareness campaigns designed to educate the
percentage of uninsured individuals also rose. community on the importance of reporting crimes.
These campaigns should emphasize the role of citizens
Conversely, a study by Narita 2023 [24] titled "The Impact of in promoting community safety and highlight how
Health Care Costs on the Uninsured Rate" reveals no statistically reporting can lead to more effective law enforcement.
significant correlation between increased health insurance
premiums and a decrease in the uninsured rate. The study posits 2. Community Policing Initiatives: Establish community
that factors such as tax credits play a more pivotal role in the policing initiatives that facilitate positive interactions
decision to purchase health insurance than the cost of premiums between residents and the police. These initiatives may
alone. involve neighborhood events, workshops, and outreach
programs aimed at building trust and rapport.
Both studies underscore the intricate nature of the relationship
between insurance premiums and the uninsured rate, emphasizing 3. Victim Support Services: Enhance access to victim
the necessity of considering multifaceted variables in policy services to ensure that individuals feel safe and
development. supported when reporting crimes. This includes
providing victims with access to counseling, legal aid,
The findings unveiled in Table 12, substantiated by extant and necessary resources, fostering an environment of
academic literature, illuminate the complex correlation between empathy and care.
discouraging and encouraging factors of crime reporting. While
statistical significance remains elusive, the understanding that 4. Streamlined Reporting Process: Simplify and
these factors are positively correlated presents opportunities for streamline the crime reporting process, making it
policy development and further research, facilitating a more accessible through various channels, including online
comprehensive grasp of the dynamics underpinning crime reporting systems and mobile applications.
reporting behavior. Additionally, provide the option for anonymity to
address concerns related to potential retaliation.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The research conducted in Angeles City has yielded valuable 5. Criminal Justice System Improvements: Enhance the
insights into the complexities of crime reporting behavior and accountability and transparency of the criminal justice
public perceptions. Notably, it is evident that a considerable system. This involves reducing case processing times,
number of residents hold a positive disposition towards reporting providing regular updates to victims, and making case
crimes, a sentiment driven by their heightened awareness of the progress information accessible to the public.
severity of certain offenses, a sense of empowerment to contribute
to community safety, and a shared responsibility for the well- 6. Law Enforcement Training: Implement training
being of their neighborhoods. These findings bear important programs for law enforcement personnel that focus on
implications for local law enforcement agencies and effective communication, cultural competency, and
policymakers as they seek to improve crime reporting strategies community engagement. Such training equips officers
and foster community safety. to better understand and address the diverse needs and
concerns of the communities they serve.
The research has unveiled a noteworthy dimension, revealing that
individuals often concur with factors that deter crime reporting, 7. Data Collection and Analysis: Establish mechanisms
especially in cases of non-traditional crimes such as domestic for continuous data collection and analysis of crime
violence and sexual offenses. This reluctance often stems from reporting rates and the underlying reasons for
underlying fears or a lack of trust in the justice system. Notably, underreporting. This data is essential for adapting and
there is a prevalent public perception in Angeles City that refining strategies aimed at increasing reporting and
generally reflects trust in the effectiveness and competence of the improving community safety.
local police. However, it is noteworthy that the research
underscores the absence of a strong correlation between this 8. Collaborative Partnerships: Foster collaborative
perception and the actual behavior of reporting crimes. partnerships between law enforcement agencies,
community organizations, and local government to
V. RECOMMENDATIONS address the root causes of crime, create safer
Considering these research findings, several targeted neighborhoods, and build public trust.
recommendations can be made to enhance crime reporting and
contribute to the reduction of crime rates in Angeles City: These recommendations should be thoughtfully tailored to the
specific needs and cultural beliefs of the community to ensure
their effectiveness. The effective implementation of these
measures in Angeles City has the potential to set a positive 18. Heredia-González, J. M., Fondevila, G., & Massa, R. (2022).
example for community engagement and public safety. These Crime Reporting and Institutional Reputation of the Police in
recommendations are substantiated by existing research in the Mexico. International Criminology, 1–16.
fields of community policing, victim services, criminal justice 19. Boateng, F. D. (2018). Crime Reporting Behavior: Do Attitudes
reform, and public trust in law enforcement. These fields Toward the Police Matter? Journal of Interpersonal Violence,
highlight the significance of fostering robust, collaborative 33(18), 2891–2916.
20. Wood, J., & Tendayi, G. (2001). Public Attitudes to Crime and
relationships between the community and the police to ensure
Punishment: A Review of the Research. Report Prepared for The
safer neighborhoods and more effective crime reporting. The
Esmee Fairbairn Charitable Trust.
successful implementation of these recommendations in Angeles 21. Griego, R. (2021). Social Influences on Citizens’ Attitudes
City can serve as a promising model for community engagement Toward the Police in a Social Influences on Citizens’ Attitudes
and the enhancement of public safety. Toward the Police in a Public Assistance Role Public Assistance
Role.
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ISSN (Online): 2455-3662

EPRA International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (IJMR) - Peer Reviewed Journal

IMPACT OF POLICE CYNICISM ON CRIME REPORTING:

Rhem Rick N. Corpuz1, Francis M. Almero2, Justin Kian B. Mendoza3,

Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.36713/epra14787

E. Research Instrument F. VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENT

2023 EPRA IJMR | http://eprajournals.com/ | Journal DOI URL: https://doi.org/10.36713/epra2013------------------------------------------------------------------------- 96

Table 4. Among the 84 respondents, 25 respondents (29.8%) reported

The survey collected responses from participants, revealing that

Discouragement factors refer to specific policies designed to add

2023 EPRA IJMR | http://eprajournals.com/ | Journal DOI URL: https://doi.org/10.36713/epra2013------------------------------------------------------------------------- 97

The positive attitudes uncovered through this research bear

The impact of positive attitudes on actual crime reporting rates

Cross-cultural insights add a layer of complexity. For instance, a

However, it is essential to acknowledge that variations exist. In a

Capitalizing on these favorable perceptions, law enforcement

These findings align with existing literature in the field. Bolger

Furthermore, these findings provide a gateway to deeper

In support of the positive correlation finding, a study by Chernew

2023 EPRA IJMR | http://eprajournals.com/ | Journal DOI URL: https://doi.org/10.36713/epra2013------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103

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