Hinduism

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Hinduism

Hinduism
Hinduism is the world’s third largest religion with around 15% of the
entire population practicing the Hindu faith. Hindu followers in India
comprise the major bulk with almost 80% of the country’s population
adhering to the religion. Other Asian countries with considerable
Hindu faithful include Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh. (15 million),
and Indonesia (3.9 million in Balij. There are also substantial number
of Hindus in Mauritius, Guyana, Fiji, Bhutan, Trinidad and Tobago,
Suriname, and Sri Lanka (Jose and Ong, 2016).
Hinduism was never a missionary religion unlike Christianity or
Islam. With the changing times, however, there have been
proselytizing activities by Hindu missionaries in some Western
cities.
Historical Background

• According to Jose and Ong (2016), Hinduism is oftentimes


considered as the oldest and most complex of all world
religions. While the most active religions of the modern
times may have started around the sixth century B.C.E.
onward, elements and themes of Hindu belief may have
begun around the third millennium B.C.E. In addition, unlike
other major religions, Hinduism had no one identifiable
founder.
•The term Hindu originated from the Persian word
hindu in Sanskrit sindhu) which means “river.” It
also refers to the people of the Indus Valley the
Indians (Bowker 1997). The name Hinduism was
given in the nineteenth century to describe the wide
array of belief systems in India. Hinduism was
originally known as “Arya Dharma” or the Aryan
Way.
•As early as 3000 B.C.E., there were already thriving
civilizations in India, such as those discovered in the ancient
Punjab city of Harappa and in Mohenjo- Daro along the Indus.
However, we know very little about the belief system of these
early people (Brown 1975). Historically, the formations of
Hinduism may have originated from the customs of the early
people of the Indus valley around 2500 B.C.E. to 1500 B.C.E.,
in the more advanced culture of the Dravidians, and from the
Aryans who invaded northwest India around 1500 B.CE.
•In the 1920s, archacological excavations in the two pre- Aryan
cities Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro revealed that the natives
already had a flourishing civilization with their agricultural cities
characterized by well-planed streets with drainage systems.
Unfortunately, despite having a written language, it has not yet
been deciphered. As a result, vital information concerning the pre-
Aryan like and religious beliefs has been elusive. Our knowledge
of pre-Aryan belief can be seen from the numerous statues and
amulets recovered by archaeologists. Images of fertility gods and
goddesses are noticeable from these artifacts while some figures
Appear in the lotus position which was later absorbed by yoga
Hinduism and other sects. Later elements of Hinduism may
have taken shape from the practices of pre- Aryan people who
were already civilized city dwellers.

Between 1750 B.C.E. and 1200 B.C.E., Aryan conquerors moved


to the Indus Valley and brought with them their own set of beliefs
that eventually mingled with the religion of the natives. Classical
Hinduism resulted in the consolidation of their faiths. Around sixth
century B.C.B., they began to settle into cities while local leaders
started organizing small kingdoms for themselves.
Aryans brought with them their set of beliefs based on
oral texts known as Vedas. This Vedic literature,
however, was chiefly composed at the time the Aryans
had already settled in India and blended with the natives.
Admittedly, there is much difficulty in identifying
elements in the Vedas that are genuinely pre-Aryan or
Aryan influenced. However, certain fundamental
assumptions about the Aryan religion can be stated
here. Firstly, the Aryans brought with them a polytheistic
religion like that of other Indo-European people.
1. SACRED SCRIPTURES OF HINDUISM

As stated by Jose and Ong (2016), the sacred texts of


Hinduism have been principally passed down
throughout generations by way of music, recitation,
dance, and drama. Sanskrit has been the language of
the earliest writings.

The sacred writings of the Hindus are categorized


into two classes, the Shruti and Smriti.
A. SHRUTI

Shruti literally, means “that which is heard.” They are regarded


as eternal truths that were passed orally until the beginning of
the present age wherein there came the need to write them
down (Bowker 1997).

The four collections of texts of the Vedas form the shruti and are
considered primary sources and the most authoritative texts of the
Hindu faith. Other writings that form part of shruti include the
Samhitas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, and a few Sutras.
Vedas
The four basic Vedic books, which are sacrificial hymns
compiled from an earlier oral tradition, are composed of Rig-
veda, Sama-veda, Yajurveda, and
Atharva-veda. The word Veda means “knowledge” or
“sacred love.”
The Vedas are the earliest known Sanskrit literature from the
Brahmanic period and oldest scriptures of Hinduism
Gods and goddesses Personification or Attributes
Scholars disagree as to when the Vedas were first
written. The earliest hymns may have been written
around 2000 B.C.E. or before the arrival of the Aryans in
the Indus Valley area. They may also have been written
down between 1500 B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E. Ascertaining
the exact period is difficult because these books may
have been composed and passed orally for so many
generations before they were first written down and
eventually completed. In the great epic Mahabharata,
Brahma was said to have Created the Vedas.
Among the four Vedas, the Rig-Veda is the most
important and oldest book that dates back to around
1500 B.C.E. to 1200 B.O.E. Apart from being the oldest
work of literature in an Indo-European language, it is
also the oldest living religious literature of the world. The
book is a collection of over a thousand hymns and more
than thousand verses dedicated to the Aryan pantheon
of gods. The table below lists some of the names of
these deities (Jose and Ong. 2016).
Yajur Veda or the knowledge of rites is the second book.
Composed between 1200 B.C.E. to 1000 B.C.E., this book
is a compilation of materials recited during rituals and
sacrifices to deities.
The third book is Sama-Veda or the “knowledge of
chants.” Dating back almost the same time as the Yajur
Veda, this book is a collection of verses from the basic
hymna recited by priests during sacrifices.
Lastly, the fourth book is Atharva Veda or “knowledge
given by the Atharva that date back around 1500 B.CE.
To 1000 B.C.E. This book contains rituals used in homes
and popular prayers to gods. Seldom used in solemn

ceremonies unlike the other three Vedas, The Atharva


Veda contains numerous spells and incantations for
medicinal purposes and magical aids to victory in battle
among others (Jose and Ong, 2016).
Each Vedas consists of four main parts the Mantras,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

1. Mantras are hymns and chants for praising god.

2. Brahmanas are explanations of the Mantras with detailed


descriptions of the sacrificial ceremonies related to them.

3. Aranyakas are meditations that explicate their meaning.

4. Upanishads or secret teachings transcend rituals to elucidate


the nature of the universe and human’s connectedness to it. The
many teachings embedded in the Upanishads are called Vedanta,
and these are teeming with spiritual truths.
Upanishads

Forming the fourth part of the Vedas, the term Upanishad literally
translates as “sitting down near” or “sitting close to as it implies
listening intently to the mystic teachings of a spiritual teacher who
has fully understood the universal truths. It could also mean
“brahma-knowledge whereby ignorance is totally eliminated.

Within these amazing collections of writings that were transmitted


orally through generations, one can find early philosophical
statements that form the basis for all later Hindu philosophy.
The great Indian nationalist and philosopher Sri Aurobindo described the
Upanishads as the supreme work of the Indian mind.” Varying in length
from one page to over fifty pages, all fundamental teachings and
concepts about Hinduism are found in these profound dissertations such
as:
1. Karma (action)
2. Samsarn (reincarnation)
3. moksha (nirvana)
4. atman (soul); and
5. brahman (Absolute Almighty)
B. Shimriti
Smriti literally means “that which has been remembered.”
These writings serve to reinforce shruti and are interpreted by
sages and scholars alike. Most of these texts are sectarian in
nature and considered of lesser importance compared to shruti,
such as stories and legends, codes of conduct for the society,
and guidebooks for worship.
The great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, which contains the
philosophical poem Bhagavad Gita, are part of Shrmriti. These
are national epics of India and considered to be the sacred texts
of the masses where they draw their values and ideals (Jose and
Ong, 2016).
Ramayana

The Ramayana, translated as the “Story of Rama’s


Journey,” is a Sanskrit epic poem written by the poet Valmiki
consisting of 24,000 verses in seven books and 500 cantos.
This great epic was written between 200 BCE and 200 CE,
Central to the story is Rama, a prince and later portrayed as
avatar or incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu, who was born
in Ayodhya. Rama was exiled by his father on the eve of his
coronation.
Presently, this story is danced out and acted in Southeast Asia
where Hindu. Influence is observable. Most characters are
popular in Indonesia, Thailand, and Cambodia.
The Mahabharata

The Mahabharata , attributed to Vyasa ,is the


world’s longest poem, composed of around
100,000 verses around 500 B.C.E. It narrates the
struggle between two families: the Pandavas ,
representing good, and the Kauravas , embodying
evil. The Kauravas attempt to cheat the Pandavas
out of their kingdom, leading to a great war. With the
help of Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, the
Pandavas win but lose all their sons and kin.
The epic, containing 1.8 million words, is four times longer
than the Ramayana , eight times longer than the Iliad and the
Odyssey combined, and fifteen times longer than the Bible . It
ranks alongside the Bible and the Quran in significance
among sacred texts, exploring themes of intrigue, romance,
duplicity, moral collapse, and lamentation.
The Bhagavad Gita, translated as “the Lord’s Song,” is a
celebrated episode within the Mahabharata written between the
2nd century B.C.E. and 3rd century C.E. It is one of the holiest
texts in Hinduism, consisting of 700 verses that depict a dialogue
between the Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide-cousin Krishna
just before the war at Kurukshetra .
The Gita teaches that individuals can reach God through
devotion, knowledge, or selfless action. It emphasizes the
importance of fulfilling one’s duty or dharma, regardless of the
consequences

2. BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES OF HINDUISM


As stated by Cornelio et al. (2016), the Hindu faith offers its
followers many paths to salvation. They may find liberation
from the cycle of life through devotion to one or more gods.
Their gods and goddesses can be worshipped at their
temples. In temples, devotees can pray and offer sacrifices so
that they can gain favor from deities and assist them in their
struggle for salvation
Bhakti stands for the soul’s longing for and
clinging to god.

Devotion to the Trimurti

Central to Hinduism is the Brahman who is the ultimate


reality, one and undivided. The Brahman is often seen in
three forms or functions. Called the Trimurti, (or Trinity)
these are creation, preservation, and destruction. These
functions are expressed in god forms, namely, Brahma, the
creator, Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer.
The Hindu Trimurthi is not
found in the earlier Vedic
writings, but it is believed to
be a later addition in order to
provide a systematization of
the functions of different
deities.
Though widely respected and
recognized as the creator of the
universe, Brahma receives the least
attention among the trimurti. In fact, only
two temples are dedicated to him in
India, and he has no cult of devotees.

He is not worshipped in the same way as other gods because


he has done his task and will not come into his own until the
next creation of the universe. When depicted, Brahma has four
heads and eight hands.
His chief consort is Saraswati, the goddess of science
and wisdom. Brahma’s vehicle is a swan or goose which
symbolizes knowledge.
Known as a god of love, benevolence, and forgiveness,
Vishnu’s primary concern is humanity itself. As the preserver,
the creation is withdrawn to a seed whenever he sleeps but
rises again as he wakes up. He is worshiped in various forms
of his incarnations or avatars. Based on mythology, Vishnu has
appeared on earth in nine different forms and will come a tenth
time to end the present era or kalpa, to bring the world to an
end, and then recreate it. These manifestations of Vishnu are
intended to help humanity with his preserving, restoring, and
protecting powers. The table below lists the 10 avatars of
Vishnu as cited by Jose and Ong,
Incarnation Form Attributes
In Hindu sacred writings, Vishnu is
depicted as having four arms and with a
dark complexion. His most popular
manifestation is Krishna who is blue, the
color of infinity and plays the flute.
Vishnu’s consort is Lakshmi, the goddess
of fortune, who us seated in a lotus
between two elephants with their trunks
raised above her.

Both Vishnu and Lakshmi ride the eagle mount or kite Garuda,
the symbol of the sky and the sun. The snake in Garuda’s claws
represents water.
As the destroyer and the god of death,
destruction, and disease, Shiva is the
third in the Trimurti. His functions are
many. He is also god of dance,
vegetable, animal, and human
reproduction (Hopfe 1983). In Hindu
belief, death is but a prelude to birth,
hence, the god of death is also the god
often revered through
The lingam, the male energy surrounded by the yoni, the
female source of energy (Bowker 1997).
Routes to Moksha

From the Upanishads, one may find the three principal


and inter-related doctrines within the Indian religion.
These are the following:
1. Every soul dies and is reborn anew in new form
(this cycle is called samsara).
2. One’s deeds have an effect in this or a future life.
3. One may escape the weary round of death and
birth.
Within every human is an eternal soul or atman that is
being reborn many times and in various forms in
accordance to the moral law or karma (Bowker 1997). A
soul may escape the cycle of rebirth and attain moksha.
This liberation can be achieved through the four yogas that
involve a system of practices aimed at producing spiritual
enlightenment.

The word yoga is derived from the root word yug which
translates as “to yoke” or “to join.
Table below lists down the four yogas with
their corresponding practices.
For all Hindus, there are four desirable goals or areas of life of
purushartha.
These are:

1. dharma (appropriate behavior)

2. artha the pursuit of legitimate worldly success) 3. kama (the


pursuit of legitimate pleasure); and

4. moksha (release from rebirth).

The terminal stage involves the liberation from the bonds of flesh
and the limitations of death-bound life.
Worship and Observance of Hinduism

Hinduism recognizes approximately 330 million gods or devas,


including natural phenomena, evil forces, and revered humans.
Worship, or puja, is a key aspect of Hindu religious life, involving
offerings to deities at home altars or temples. The goal of puja is
darshan, an intimate exchange where devotees see and receive
blessings from the deity through sanctified food called prasad.
Integral to worship are sacred images and temples, often
overseen by priests and religious teachers. The Mughal Empire
(1526-1858) significantly influenced Indian architecture,
exemplified by the Taj Mahal
Hindus practice individual worship with mantras and
offerings, with Thursday being particularly auspicious.
Major festivals include:
1.Holi : Festival of colors.
2. Diwali : Festival of lights, akin to Christmas, symbolizing
the triumph of light over darkness.
3. Dusserah: Celebrating the victory of good over evil.

Regional festivals also feature colorful processions and


performances, enriching the Hindu calendar.
4. SUBDIVISIONS AND SELECTED ISSUES OF
HINDUISM

1. Subdivisions
Followers of Hinduism vary in their set of beliefs and
practices, including reverence to a particular god.

Presently, there are four principal denominations within the


Hindu faith. These are Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishavism, and
Smartism.
A. Shaivism – The lord Shiva, the compassionate one, is
god for the saivities. Followers of Shaivism value self-
discipline and philosophy. They worship in temples and
practice yoga.

B. Shaktism
Shaktism emphasizes the goddess Shakti as the supreme
divine mother, taking on various forms. Followers use
chants, magic, and yoga to connect with cosmic forces.
C. Vaishnavism
Vaishnavites worship Lord Vishnu, especially in his
incarnations as Krishna and Rama, with a rich tradition of
saints, temples, and sacred texts.

D. Smartism
Smartas are inclusive, allowing devotees to choose
among six major deities: Ganesha, Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti,
Surya, and Skanda.
2. Selected Issues
Hinduism accounts for almost 80% of India’s population, yet
India remains a secular state, allowing diverse beliefs.

A. Hinduism and Women


Despite the Manusmriti advocating for women’s honor,
societal norms have often placed them in subordinate roles,
reliant on men throughout their lives. Practices like sati,
though largely abolished, still occur.
B. Caste System
The caste system categorizes society into four main groups:
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, with social
mobility largely determined by birth, reinforcing long-standing
hierarchies.

The caste system has been a major concern for reformers,


evolving into thousands of castes often linked to occupations.
A person’s diet, job, and residence are largely determined by
their caste, with over 3,000 castes in India.
Hindu teachings have historically justified the status of
outcastes, suggesting their conditions result from
accumulated karma. By fulfilling their duties and adhering to
their dharma, they might attain a better caste in future lives.

Despite criticism, India has made strides to combat caste


discrimination. The constitution prohibits discrimination against
lower castes, and members are increasingly elected to significant
government roles, such as Kocherii R. Narayanan, a Dalit who
served as president from 1997 to 2002.
Prominent critics like Mahatma Gandhi labeled the
Shudras as “harijans,” or “children of God,” advocating for
their rights. The Indian Constitution officially abolished the
caste system in 1948, but its social implications continue to
persist today.

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