Composting Toilets

Composting is an aerobic process—it takes place with the presence of air. That means
that properly operating composting toilets do not produce unpleasant smells or gases. The
temperatures reached inside the compost, along with the time the compost spends
“curing”, kill the disease organisms that might be present. Composting toilets also
conserve the nutrients in the feces and urine, so that they can be returned to the land.
Compost itself contains valuable organic matter that does wonders for soil life and
gardens, a topic which will be expanded on in future writings on gardening.

Some people are worried about the fact that one might have to handle material containing
human feces. This is a valid concern, but it shouldn’t be a problem if proper handwashing
and other simple precautions take place. After all, most of us are quite literally full of
poop all the time, and use the toilet on a regular basis, and it doesn’t harm us. As long as
you wash properly, a composting toilet is no more dangerous than any other kind of
toilet.

For extensive information on the subject of composting toilets, please read the well-
written and thoroughly researched Humanure Handbook, by Joseph Jenkins. You can
visit his website at www.jenkinspublishing.com/humanure.html, where the entire text is
available online. He uses the term “humanure” to refer to human poop.

Composting is a process in which microorganisms, normally present in the soil and all
around us, break down organic materials like kitchen scraps, straw, poop, and so on.
Essentially, they eat it. As they do this, they also generate heat, the same way that our
bodies generate heat all the time. This heat builds up in the pile, and the increased
temperatures kill pathogens present. There is a special class of microorganisms called
“thermophilic microorganisms.” These microbes love high temperatures. If you can get
the pile up to thermophilic temperatures, above 45°C (113°F), these microbes will love it.
The composting process will happen very rapidly, and all pathogens will quickly be
killed.

A well made compost will not smell, and will be quite warm. The essential ingredients of
a good compost are sufficient moisture, oxygen, a warm enough temperature, and a good
balance between carbon and nitrogen.

The compost should not be too dry, or too wet. If it is too dry, the microorganisms will
not be able to grow properly, and valuable nitrogen will be lost to the air. If it is too wet,
than the air won’t be able to get in, and the compost will become anaerobic (and smelly).
A compost should be about as damp as a wrung-out sponge. If your compost is too dry,
just add household wastewater. If it is too wet, you need to add more bulky material like
straw, or other roughage materials discussed below.

Giving a compost pile oxygen means giving it air. This is why bulky materials are so
important. You can use sawdust, leaf mould, peat moss, weeds, hay, straw, leaves, rice
hulls, shredded paper or cardboard, or similar materials. If something in the compost pile
smells bad, cover it with this bulky material.

Temperature is important because the thermophilic composting microbes need a certain

minimum temperature to operate, and because the elevated temperature kills pathogens
(just as a fever kills pathogens in our bodies). In cold climates, they will sleep over
winter, but the compost pile will come alive again in the spring. This freezing also kills
some pathogens. You can continue to add compost to the pile even if it is frozen.

A good carbon to nitrogen ratio helps the compost to heat up, by giving the microbes a
healthy, balanced diet. The bulky materials listed above are very high in carbon. Adding
manure and urine equalize the nitrogen ratio. You want to have a ratio of carbon to
nitrogen somewhere between 20:1 and 35:1. If you have too much nitrogen in your
compost, it will release that nitrogen as ammonia gas, which you don’t want. Not only
will you lose nitrogen, but it smells bad.

Many people do not pee in their composting toilets, because it causes a smell for them.
This smell comes from excess nitrogen and water, and adding roughage compensates.
Jenkins recommends including urine in a well-balanced compost, but most of the people I
know simply apply their urine (diluted with 3 to 6 parts of water) to their garden or
orchard. (Urine is almost universally free of pathogens. Only urinary schistosomiasis can
be spread by urine, and it exists only in a few tropical locations.) See what works for you
with your climate and soils. If putting urine in your composting toilet isn’t working, your
nose will tell you quickly.

Separating urine may also be a good idea in situations where the nitrogen content is
required immediately for gardening, and the gardener can not wait several years for the
compost to cure.

See the books in the notes at the end of this section for comprehensive tables of the
carbon and nitrogen contents of different foods and organic materials.

There is a wide variety of home made and commercial compost toilets, but, of course, we
will discuss those you can make yourself.

The two discussed here are the two-chamber mouldering toilet, and the Jenkins sawdust
toilet.

The Jenkins Sawdust Toilet

Described by Joseph Jenkins in the Humanure Handbook, the sawdust toilet is a

convenient method of composting your humanure while still having a toilet inside your
home. This method consists of two parts, a toilet receptacle inside, which is filled with
sawdust or other roughage, and regularly emptied into a set of composting bins outside.
The toilet receptacle inside is simple to construct, and can be made in a variety of
different ways. Using 5-gallon buckets as the receptacle is easy, since they are so
common. Jenkins recommends not using a larger size than that, since the contents would
be very heavy to carry out to the pile. You can build a toilet seat on top of it, or a
platform to squat on.

After each “deposit”, add roughage to cover the feces and urine. This toilet does not
require an airtight or fly-proof lid, since the roughage keeps out flies and cuts smells.

When the receptacle is full (or almost too heavy to carry) it can be dumped in the
compost bin and buried in the top layer of the compost pile.

There are a number of designs for the compost bins, many of which vary by climate.
People in hot, dry climates, may need to dig a pit to put their compost in to conserve
valuable moisture. People in very rainy climates may need to build a roof over their
compost pile to keep it dry enough, and prevent nutrients from leaching away.

Jenkins suggests a simple rotating multi-bin system, as shown. Remember that you will
need at least two bins, one for this year’s compost pile (still being built), and one for last
year’s which is composting. If climate or other constraints prevent your compost pile
from reaching thermophilic temperatures, you will want to add a third bin to let the
compost mature for a full two years. You may also want an extra, sheltered bin to keep
roughage such as straw, grass, or hay in.
When starting a new humanure compost pile, put down at least 18 inches of roughage.
This "sponge" will soak up any fluid leaching from the pile to prevent contamination.

If you don’t have any smells, hopefully you won’t have any trouble with animals digging
into the pile. If this is a problem, you should put wire or other barriers around the pile, to
prevent animals from accessing the pile and spreading pathogens.

The Two Chamber Toilet

This composting toilet is essentially an outhouse version of the general system described
above. The “bathroom” is located directly above the composting chamber, as shown.
There are two seats (or holes, if you prefer to squat), one for each chamber. The
chambers are used one at a time. While one chamber is composting and closed off, the
other is in use. After each deposit, roughage is dropped into the chamber.

You can make the chamber out of cement, wood, or other materials that you have
available. However, it need not be air or fluid-tight. You will need a door on the “back”
to access the compost for checking on it and eventually emptying the chamber. You may
need to smooth the pile, check the moisture, and add more roughage.
Variations

There are plenty of variations on simple and homebuilt composting toilet designs. To
increase the composting temperature, some toilets use solar energy to heat the pile and
accelerate decomposition. You can enhance the two-chamber design above by facing the
chambers towards the south and placing glass or translucent plastic on the wall to let in
sunlight. You could even include reflectors to heat things up even more.

Some designs also include perforated pipes or other means of increasing the air supply to
the compost pile. Others creatively incorporate reused barrels or other materials in their
toilets. You can check out a variety of designs on the web, and experiment for yourself.

Composting Toilet Notes

www.compostingtoilet.org/
The Humanure Handbook, by Joseph Jenkins
The Toilet Papers, by Sim Van Der Ryn

More information on composting in general will be covered in future writings. In the

meantime, check out excellent books on the subject like “The Real Dirt: The Complete
Guide to Backyard, Balcony, and Apartment Composting” by Mark Cullen and Lorraine
Johnson.
2.7 Waterless toilets
• Continuous composting toilets
• Batch composting toilets
• Maintenance of composting toilets
• Choosing a composting toilet

Waterless toilets or 'dry sanitation' systems are systems that do not use water to
treat or transport human excreta. If appropriately designed, they conserve precious
water resources and avoid disposal of effluent and pollutants into waterways and
the general environment. They can also save you money on your water bill.

They are an important, minimum energy, on-site alternative to centralised reticulated

systems that transport the problem 'downstream'. They can also reduce the site
restrictions and pollution and nutrient problems that can be encountered in the use of
systems such as septic tanks.

Waterless toilets can produce a quality fertiliser that is hygienic to use, if sufficient time
is allowed and correct treatment conditions have been maintained.

The most common type of waterless toilet is referred to as a 'composting toilet' (CT)
although the treatment often involves more than the process that occurs in your garden
compost heap.

A Composting Toilet that is working well and is correctly maintained does not smell.

The original 'waterless toilet' was the pit latrine and sometimes people fear that the
composting toilet will look and smell like a pit toilet. But composting toilets can be an
elegant addition to a modern bathroom.

Decomposition in the holding tank or container of a CT occurs through a complex bio-

chemical interaction of factors such as temperature, pH, desiccation, and digestion by
invertebrates, all taking place over an extended time period.
There are many designs of CT but they can be divided into two main types with
characteristic advantages and disadvantages. The designs include commercial off-the-
shelf units and owner-built systems that can be constructed using readily available
materials.

CONTINUOUS COMPOSTING TOILETS

Plans for a continuous

composting toilet

These consist of a single container in which excrement is deposited, and decomposes as it

moves slowly through the container. It is then removed as compost from the end-product
chamber.

Advantages of Continuous CTs:

Single containers are fitted under a bathroom and can easily replicate a flush toilet with
little physical or social adjustment.

The container is permanently fitted under the toilet seat, and never has to be fully emptied
as the compost can be gradually removed when it reaches the end-product chamber.

Disadvantages of Continuous CTs:

The continuous system may allow fresh material and pathogens (disease causing
organisms) deposited on the top of the pile to contaminate the successfully decomposed
end-product at the bottom of the pile.

If a problem occurs with the toilet, the system can be out of order until the problem is
fixed because there is only one container. Sometimes the pile does not actually move
down the slope of the container and can become compacted and very difficult to remove.
BATCH COMPOSTING TOILETS

Batch CTs consist of two or more containers that are alternated

so that the 'active' container is being used while the pile in the
'fallow' container has time to compost without the addition of
fresh excrement and the potential for re-contamination.

An example of owner-built Batch CTs is the 'Wheelie-batch'

where containers are alternated underneath the toilet seat.

Plans for Clivus Minimus Wheelie-batch Composting Toilet

 Fixed Chamber Batch

Another example of the alternating Batch system is:

The Fixed Chamber Batch where the two containers are permanently in place and the
seat is moved when the time comes to change containers.

It is possible to keep using the toilet and still be sure that the pile is fully decomposed
before removing the end-product.

Disadvantages of Batch CTs:

The full containers in the Batch system need to be replaced by an empty container. This
involves disconnecting the container fitted under a toilet seat or moving the seat over a
new container. Batch systems can therefore take up more space in the bathroom or under
the house.

MAINTENANCE OF COMPOSTING TOILETS

The Composting Toilet is relatively simple technically but requires more attention
than a flush toilet.

Some carbon based material or 'bulking agent', such as dry leaves or softwood
shavings, should be regularly added to the container, preferably daily or with each use.
This provides the proper carbon-nitrogen mix, helps aerate the pile and prevents
compacting. Some commercial suppliers say this is not necessary for their design and
their directions should be followed, but experience indicates the addition of bulking agent
is desirable in most designs to produce good compost.

A CT that is working well does not smell. Offensive odours usually indicate that
something is wrong and trouble-shooting directions need to be followed. Often adding
bulking agent in greater quantities or more regularly will remove the smell.

The pile in a CT needs to be well drained. The liquid run-off is

often treated in a sealed evapotranspiration trench or a solar
evaporating tray.

Vent pipes provide aeration to the pile and can work passively
using convection. Fans are not essential but are often included
in off-the-shelf systems. Fans should be checked occasionally
to ensure they are not choked with dust or insects.

The end-product or compost needs to be removed from the CT container when it is

sufficiently decomposed. The frequency of removal depends on the size of container,
how often the system is used and local climatic conditions. The minimum 'fallow' period
should be six months. Depending on the design and usage, the container usually needs to
be emptied every six months to three years.

The compost can be used as fertiliser dug into in your garden or disposed of according to
local Council regulations.

CTs do not deal with greywater from showers, kitchen and laundry so a separate
collection and treatment system needs to be provided.
[See: Wastewater Reuse]

CHOOSING A COMPOSTING TOILET

For an off-the-shelf unit contact several suppliers. Tell them about the building, where
the toilet will be located, how many people will be using the toilet and whether it will be
on a continuous basis or only occasionally, such as in a holiday house. Ask them to
recommend a suitable system for your needs and provide a quote. The cost can range
from $1500 to $5000. Some suppliers will also assist with Greywater treatment systems.

Check if the supplier will give you after sales support. Ask if they have any customers
with whom you could meet and discuss their experience with the CT. The cycle of usage
and production of compost or end-product can take a couple of years. It is important to
know that all stages of the process work satisfactorily.

Check with your local Council and/or the supplier to confirm that CT design has
approval in your area. Council attitudes and regulations vary, but the common off-the-
shelf units have Health Department approval. The owner-built designs are usually
cheaper to install but often have not gone through the required approval process, even
though they have been used widely for many years.

Sometimes Council staff will be open to a new system being trialed in your home, with
supervision and monitoring. They are often more receptive if they have had a lot of
trouble with septic tanks in their area.

For example, in the mid-north coast region of New South Wales, Council staff
recommend home owners install composting toilets rather than septic tank systems.
Avoid complicated designs. Simple passive systems with minimum moving parts are
usually easier and cheaper to build, monitor and maintain. Some people prefer the
designs that have more moving parts because they think it will mean they have less to do
with maintaining the system. If the system is working well this can be true, but if there is
a problem, the more complicated designs can be more difficult to fix.

As there are many different types and applications of CTs, they cannot be detailed here
so please refer to the website at www.compostingtoilet.org This has extensive
information on CTs and worldwide contacts for commercial units and owner-built
designs. Also investigate the literature below.

ADDITIONAL KEY REFERENCES

The Composting Toilet System Book - A Practical Guide to Choosing, Planning and
Maintaining Composting Toilet Systems,
a Water Saving, Pollution-Preventing Alternative (1999) by David Del Porto and Carol
Steinfield.
Published by The Center for Ecological Pollution Prevention (CEPP), P.O Box 1330,
Concord, Massachusetts 01742-1330. USA
The Composting Toilet System Book also has useful information on greywater treatment
systems.
Ecological Sanitation (1998) by Steve Esrey et al. Edited by Uno Windblad.
Published by the Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, Sida, S-105 25
Stockholm, Sweden.
Purchase by e-mail: order@special.lagerhus.se

Principal author:
Leonie Crennan
Build Your Own Vermicomposting Toilet

We have been intrigued with a unique style of composting toilet which is in use by some
members of the natural building community. It combines two tried and tested principles
of organic gardening: vermicomposting and moldering (i.e., low temperature) composting
toilets. Although I have never used one, I am told that it works well. In order to further
this idea we have researched one installation and are attaching simple plans for
construction. The basic idea is to create a friendly habitat for worms and keep them
continuously supplied with food. Their job is to consume and digest compostables
(including human bio-wastes) into rich garden compost. In order to facilitate harvest of
this compost the system is designed to operate in batches, and consists of two chambers.
One chamber is used until it is "full". The worms are then allowed to complete digestion
while a second chamber accepts new material. (A similar batch method is typically used
for composting.) When the second chamber becomes filled, the first chamber is emptied
and the process starts all over. Because urine contains a lot of sodium and urea (an
important nutrient for photosynthesis), it is best to separate it for direct application (or
diluted with 5 parts water) on plants.

As with regular composting toilets, other household compostables, such as kitchen

scraps, may be added to the vermicomposting chamber. To keep worms happy it is
important to provide the proper initial habitat including bedding material whenever the
process starts in an empty chamber. Ideally, the worms will be able to move back and
forth between the chambers, so when food is exhausted from one side they will
automatically move to the second side. This will help to evacuate the worms before the
finished vermicompost is moved into the garden. If the compost is to be used for edible
plants (as opposed to ornamentals), it may be desired to finish it by passing it through a
high temperature compost pile. This will help insure sterilization, destroying any
potential pathogens. Here is a basic schematic for a two chamber vermicomposting toilet:
This drawing comes out of a Mexican book called Agricoltura Sostenible: Un
Acercamiento a la Permacultura, which was put together by Alejandra Caballero and Joel
Montes. (Alejandra teaches permaculture to campesinos and others. Gringos are invited
to learn permaculture and natural building, in Mexico, where it has been part of the
culture for millennia. Alejandra and her family are all extraordinary teachers, and their
family ranch is an extraordinary site where they are actively engaged in all aspects of
permaculture and local self-development and education. Interested people should obtain
more information from the Cob Cottage Company. Ask about courses in Mexico.) Below
are some actual photos of a vermicomposting toilet designed by Kiko Denzer

Practical Example

Kiko is a sculptor who works in various materials, including earth (also known as cob or
adobe). Among other things, he makes sculpted, wood-fired bread ovens out of earth, and
has published a manual on building ovens and making bread called Build Your Own
Earth Oven. He and his wife, Hannah, work and live in Oregon's coast range. Another
one of his projects can be seen here. His design was based on the schematic above. He
writes, "I adapted my toilet design from them, and I think anyone else ought to be able to
do the same. The only tricky part is making a little catch funnel for urine at the front of
the hole, where it can catch pee from seated members of either sex. (If I'm just peeing, I
use a yogurt container and pour it in, or you can build a separate urinal, if you want to get
fancy. If you want to get really fancy, like Alejandra's husband Paco, you can install a
fresh water rinse system for the urine funnel, to keep it from clogging up with
precipitated salts from the pee). We cover each solid deposit with fir sawdust which we
get from an old guy down the road with a lumber mill. Toilet paper goes right in. So did
some old underwear, and there was nothing left but the elastic! "When I cast the concrete
chambers, I set a piece of plastic pipe as a urine drain to drain both compartments
(slanted, of course). On one end is a 90 degree elbow, positioned just below the front of
the hole in the far compartment. The pipe goes through the wall dividing the chambers to
a "T" junction, also just below the center of the second hole. Then it goes on through the
last wall to a 5 gallon plastic pee pot, which gets emptied onto the compost or onto garlic
in the early spring." Kiko's vermicomposting toilet is located in a solar barn pictured
here:
The barn's interior is finished with a lime wash, pigmented with our local ochre. Earthen
floor is rough coat only -- awaiting summer to put down the smooth finish coat. The toilet
box is cast concrete, extending below ground in an 'el' that reaches forward, toward the
viewer. On top of the leg of the 'el' is a trapdoor for emptying each of two chambers,
which are divided vertically. While deposits are being made in one, the worms are
finishing off the other. The hand washing sink water supply is an exterior rain barrel (see
below); the sink drains into the toilet, where it flushes the urine funnel, diluting the urine
so it can be applied directly to garden beds as fertilizer, added to working compost piles,
or sprinkled on the lawn. Odors are only as objectionable as our attitudes make them, and
in any case, easily contained and quickly dissipated.

Urine Collection

"Pee drains into a 5 gallon bucket outside (pictured below). The bucket is rigged with a
flag on a foam cork that fits (loosely) inside a piece of plastic pipe fitted into the lid --
this mechanism provides a simple indicator for when the bucket needs emptying. As
urine generates ammonia and a very basic (as opposed to acidic) environment it is
necessary to seperate it from the other wastes to prevent toxicity to the worms.

Interior Layout

"The seating is 2-by-6 cedar planking (below, far left), since moisture and condensation
do form on the inside. The 5-1/2" slot (made by hinging the central plank) makes a nicely
sized and comfortable hole and seat. All the planking is fitted, w/angular cuts. For ease of
removal, side planks aren't fixed; this makes for more convenient access when necessary.
The wall behind the seat is vertical, woven willow wattle, plastered from behind and
smoothed in front to expose the wattle. It is still awaiting final cleaning and lime wash.
"The funnel (center left, at front of opening slot, look for the black drain hole) is hand-
shaped cement mortar over expanded metal lath, placed to catch urine flow from sitting
persons of either gender (men can use it standing as well, although it's less messy to just
go outside). I fit black plastic pipe into the lath funnel, and plugged the opening with a
wad of paper while I worked the cement. The original funnel extended a bit too far back,
so I cut it down with a masonry saw and hammer and chisels. A plastic bottle with the
bottom cut out also works, especially for determining optimum placement

"The compost at the bottom of the working chamber (right) is looking nearly done. At
this stage, I sometimes find worms wandering at the edges of their home -- looking for
more food, I presume. But populations adapt quickly. They typically work throughout the
pile (paper and kitchen wastes too), making for speedy composting. They like moisture.
A dry pile isn't normally a problem, though it did happen this past fall. We just added a
little water every few days, and the worms quickly came back up to speed. This chamber
is accessed by removing the steps above which normally cover it.

"We haven't been keeping close track of how long we're letting the worms work, but I'd
estimate that it takes us about a year to fill one chamber (a bit less than 20 cubic feet).
This year, I think we emptied it about nine months after closing. For safety's sake,
Hannah has been composting the worm castings with our regular hot compost, and then
her final precaution has been to spread the compost and let it sit on the beds over winter,
so it's all thoroughly worked before it even gets close to food. However, there was one
reference in the Humanure Handbook suggesting that worms manage to kill pathogens. I
haven't had a chance to check it out yet. (Biocycle, no. 90, Nov. 1998, p 18.)"

Whether you purchase one of the many commercially available composting toilets or
make you own vermicomposting or sawdust toilet, we wish you happy composting.
Congratulations on your decision to close the human nutrient cycle, helping to prevent
pollution and conserve and enhance the earth's natural fertility! Experiments in
Sustainable Urban Living / Feedback welcome / revised

Original article found at http://ersson.sustainabilitylane.com/vermicomposting_toilet.htm

Links, templates and categories may be added to this page, but the main content of this
ported page is protected. Editing is welcome at Vermicomposting toilet, which was
derived from this content.
Category:Composting toilets
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Contents
[hide]

• 1 Introduction
• 2 Appropriate use
• 3 Location
• 4 Construction
• 5 Operation and maintenance
• 6 Using the compost toilet
• 7 Awareness raising
• 8 Cost
• 9 Benefits of compost toilets
• 10 Summary - advantages of the compost toilet
• 11 Sources
• 12 Notes
• 13 References and further reading

• 14 See also

Many types of compost toilets are available today. They are designed to suit a variety of
customs, cultures and climates, and vary enormously in price. Composting of human
faeces is as old as the hills - it is Nature’s way of safely reintegrating human waste with
the soil. All compost toilets, however simple or complex, are devices for helping Nature
achieve this. Contrary to popular opinion compost toilets can be very clean and hygienic
and do not smell. They save huge quantities of water in a world where water is becoming
an increasingly precious resource. For example, a family with a water flush toilet would
use at least 100,000 litres of water a year for flushing. They protect surface and ground
water from sewage pollution and, unlike water flush toilets, compost toilets do not
produce sewage and do not smell.

This technical brief describes a compost toilet that has proved to be most effective in
water-logged areas where pit-latrines and septic tanks are inappropriate. It is a simple
design that does not require electricity or great investment. Built using local materials, it
is a self-contained unit that produces good compost and protects the soil and water from
any contamination. The selection of the most appropriate type and design of compost
toilet will depend on many factors which include social and cultural norms, attitude to
faeces, existing hygiene and sanitation practises, sources of drinking water, availability of
organic residues, climate, soil types, patterns of habitation and local construction
materials etc. Note that, in dry climates, desiccating or drying toilets may sometimes be
more appropriate than composting toilets because the dry ambient air can be encouraged
to flow through the faeces chamber removing any moisture, thus rendering the faeces dry
and odourless.

It is important to realise that any compost toilet programme also requires an education
programme to ensure that the principals of use and maintenance are clearly understood
and accepted by the user group.

At the end of this brief there are references to information on other types of compost and
desiccating toilets.

[edit] Introduction

In waterlogged and high water table areas, pit latrines and septic tanks can, and often do,
contaminate well water with human faeces. This is a common occurrence in coastal areas
with high population densities. In such places where open defecation on the sea shore and
derelict land is the normal practise, many families want to have their own, or at least, a
community latrine. In a crowded village, the wells and latrines would be forced to lie
close together. If septic tanks, soakaways and pit latrines are used, the well water will
inevitably become contaminated. Water contaminated with human faeces puts people at a
high risk of cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, jaundice, typhoid, polio and intestinal worms.
A dry composting toilet protects water and soil and therefore helps protect the people in
the community. Coupled with an effective hygiene awareness programme this can result
in significant reductions in the occurrence of diseases.

Compost toilets are often built with two chambers for simplicity of construction and
operation. The two chambers are used alternately; decomposition continuing in the full
one until it is emptied just prior to the other one becoming full. Each chamber has its own
opening for removal of mature, non-odorous compost. Some types of compost toilet
batch the waste in movable receptacles on trolleys or turntables whilst others generate the
compost slowly and continuously as the material progresses through the device. Some
require electricity for small heating elements (in cold climates) or fans (to ensure a
positive airflow through the system). Some compost toilets combine the urine and faeces
whilst others separate them. The compost formed by the combination of urine and faeces
is better but these toilets are

more likely to smell if used carelessly and they require much greater quantities of
carbonaceous residues like sawdust and straw. Many of the more complex types require
dry access under the toilet via a basement or cellar room.
[edit] Appropriate use

The compost toilet described here was designed to be a highly effective solution to
sanitation in high water table and waterlogged areas. However, it can be used as a reliable
and low cost water conserving technology in many other areas as well. It can be built
beside or as part of a house in rural, urban or peri-urban areas and can even be established
inside a house or apartment. It has the potential to make a significant contribution to
domestic water conservation in towns and cities as well as rural areas. Also, since there is
no need to connect it to sewerage systems, there is no extra burden on often already
overloaded services.

The compost toilet is suitable for use by a family, or it can be built in clusters for
institutions, schools, hostels and so on. However, it is recommended that the use of
compost toilets is managed within the community and that very good education and
awareness raising is done before building begins. Open access community compost
toilets are not recommended other than in well-educated and highly motivated
communities.

[edit] Location

Any toilet would usually be located on the down-wind side of a dwelling and the same
applies for compost toilets. However, when built and designed well with good education,
the compost toilet does not give any bad odours and can be placed almost anywhere. It
should be remembered that vent pipes only function effectively when there is a passage
of air over the top of them so site selection should take account of this. Access for
compost removal should be within the owners plot to prevent disputes later, especially
important in very crowded communities. A significant advantage of compost toilets is
that their location is not dependent on the location of sewers or gradients. They can be
established in a confined space either within or beside a human dwelling, whether it is a
thatched hut or high rise apartment block.

[edit] Construction

The compost toilet comprises a raised slab over two chambers. The chambers are built on
the ground, not in it. In very waterlogged areas, or those prone to flooding, a slightly
raised plinth can be made. The chambers are plastered with cement internally in order to
waterproof them and make compost removal tidier. Over each chamber there is a hole in
the slab for faeces and a funnel to receive the urine. In the centre of the slab, between the
two chambers, is a trough over which the anal cleansing is performed. The anal cleansing
water trough and urine funnel is inter-connected and flow to an evaporative plant bed
outside the latrine.

In the simplest version, the chamber doors are closed by bricks and mud mortar, both of
which can be reused to close it again. However, ferrocement, timber, marine ply or other
materials may also be used where they are appropriate locally.
The chambers are designed to have an accumulation time of about nine months to allow
thorough composting of the contents and elimination of pathogens. The compost
produced is an almost dry, crumbly, black product having a light, pleasant, earthy odour.
There is no fly nuisance or any odour problem and the toilets remain clean and pleasant
to use. The plant bed needs almost no maintenance and the only requirement is to cut
back excessive growth which can be chopped up and added to the compost chamber if
required.

Figure 1. Compost toilet (copyleft Paul Calvert, Practical Action)

[edit] Operation and maintenance

Before starting to use the latrine, each chamber is half filled with straw, twigs or dry
leaves. These provide the necessary additional carbon to the composting process and
along with the faeces will compost down to a fraction of their original volume.
Occasionally additional straw may be added through the faeces hole if the contents of the
chamber start to become wet or slightly odorous. After each use, a spoonful of dry
cooking ashes or lime should be sprinkled down the faeces hole which is then closed
using a simple cover.
When one chamber is full its defecation hole is sealed and use of the second chamber
begins. Once the second chamber is full the first is opened, the compost is removed and
the chamber is re-primed with straw. The compost can be put around flowers, plants or
trees. The urine and wash water go directly to the plant bed where flowering plants grow.
The plant bed does not leak to the ground because it is sealed. Being diluted by the wash
water, the urine does not smell and is quickly absorbed by the soil in the plant bed and
feeds the plants. The plant bed area depends on local climate and the number of users.

[edit] Using the compost toilet

• Remove the cover.

• Squat and defecate in the defecation hole and urinate in the urine funnel. (A
pedestal seat and urine catcher can be arranged if the culture favours sitting rather
than squatting.)
• Wash over the washing trough.
• Instead of flushing, simply sprinkle a spoonful of dry cooking ashes, lime or
sawdust into the defecating hole and replace the cover.
• Wash hands with soap and water.

[edit] Awareness raising

Adequate awareness raising and training needs to be given to the users in the early stages
of establishing the compost toilet. It is essential that the toilet is correctly designed and
built and that there has been a very interactive and participative approach to its
introduction. If these steps are taken, there is a far greater chance of the compost toilet
being “owned, understood and accepted” by the community which is essential if it is to
be successful.

The need for interactive training and awareness raising is to unravel and dispel the
misunderstandings and confusion that often surrounds sanitation, health, hygiene, water
and the environment. For example, in one project the main interest in the compost toilet
was for the privacy it gave rather than because it was safer and more hygienic than open
defecation. At the same time, the greatest fear of the users and neighbours was that it
would smell. By knowing the fears and misconceptions, the hygiene awareness raising
can be tailored to suit the needs of a specific community.

Training of the awareness team must also be done very carefully and interactively as they
may have the same misconceptions as the community. It is often beneficial to build the
team from amongst women and youths already active in development in the community
and who are held in good regard locally. Some methods that have been effective in
reaching the community are the performance of street dramas explaining the many faecal-
oral routes that give rise to disease and relating them to every day events and habits.
Illustrated leaflets can be distributed, games played and songs sung with children and
adults, both in school and leisure time. House visits should be made to follow up the
messages and discuss the dramas and leaflets. These visits can be particularly effective
since people are generally more willing to express any doubts in private.
[edit] Cost

The compost toilet described above is being built in India for around GBP£90 (1999)
using fired bricks, cement mortar, a reinforced concrete slab and a ferrocement roof. It
can be built for more or less depending on the complexity and permanence of the
materials used and the level of refinement of the details sought by the owners. The roof,
superstructure, internal finish and the door are the chief variables and can significantly
affect the cost.

[edit] Benefits of compost toilets

The use of compost toilets means that cities and peri-urban areas do not need to extend
capital intensive sewerage networks and sewage treatment plants. The recurring cost of
maintaining additional infrastructure is also avoided. Both these factors represent a huge
saving. Also, in areas where toilets would be flushed with municipal water there is an
enormous saving in water requirements. Cross contamination between water mains and
sewers is eradicated where compost toilets are well established as the standard sanitation
technology. Soils are steadily improved by the regular addition of good quality compost.
Conventional sewage treatment invariably leaves a dangerous sludge that still needs
further treatment or incineration whereas compost toilet systems produce a useful
product.

In water logged areas where there was previously no satisfactory sanitation system
operating, the benefits that compost toilets provide are clear. They can prevent ground
and surface water contamination and protect people’s health in areas where open
defecation on the ground or directly into water bodies has been the norm. The production
of safe compost and effective use of the urine and wash water are also a significant
benefit.

The technology also lends itself extremely well to areas with hard rocky soils where
excavation of pits is difficult, expensive or inappropriate. Again the compost is valuable
and can help to provide a better chance of establishing plant cover on thin and fragile
soils.

[edit] Summary - advantages of the compost toilet

• No need to dig pits.

• No need for sewers and treatment plants.
• No need for external infrastructure.
• Safe and affordable for anywhere but especially high water table and or water
scarce areas.
• Does not pollute the ground or surface water or the soil.
• Does not produce flies or smell.
• Uses less water than any other toilet. A water flush toilet for a family can use
100,000 litres of water a year for flushing, the compost toilet saves all this water.
 • Totally self-contained sewage treatment on site. There are no sewage pipes, no
septic tanks, and no dangerous emptying of hazardous sludge.
• No mosquitoes. Septic tanks and pit latrines often have poorly fitting covers or the
covers are not carefully replaced after emptying. These places then become prime
breeding sites for mosquitoes. In a compost toilet there is no place for mosquitoes
to breed.
• Produces safe, useful, non-odorous compost.
• The evaporative plant bed can support growth of attractive flowers, fuel wood,
vegetable or plantain.

[edit] Sources

This article has copied extensively from Compost toilets (original), a Practical Action
technical brief by Paul Calvert,[1], and at that time based on his experience of designing
and building compost toilets and hygiene awareness programmes in India.

For further information please contact:

Paul Calvert
“Pulari”
TC42/937(11)
Asan Nagar
Vallakadavu
Trivandrum - 695008
Kerala
India
E-mail: paulc vsnl com