Engineer Utilities 1

Engr. Patrick Owen E. Alimuin

Electrical Theory

 Electricity is a physical phenomenon tied to the behavior of positively and

negatively charged elementary particles of an atom. An introduction on
the elementary particles of an atom is necessary to develop a sense of
what electricity is and how it behaves.
 Two theories exist: the classical theory and the modern theory.
Classical Theory
 The Law of Charges states that opposite charges attract each other and
like charges repel each other. Thus, negatively charged electrons are
attracted to positively charged protons. Conversely, negatively charged
electrons tend to repel one another.

 In classical theory, electrical current is electron flow. Electrons in an orbital

shell near the nucleus have a strong attraction to the protons in the nucleus
and thus are difficult to free. Electrons in outer orbital shells experience a
weaker attraction and are more easily freed. Energy can be added to an
electron to move it to the next higher orbital shell. If sufficient additional
energy is added, a valence electron can be forced out of the atom. Such
an electron is said to be free. These free electrons make up electrical
current flow.
Modern Theory
 In modern theory, electricity is tied to even smaller subatomic particles that
possess either a positive or negative electromagnetic charge.
Definition

 Atoms - are the smallest unit of an element and are composed of several
kinds of elementary particles, including protons, neutrons, and electrons.
 The proton of an atom is positively charged (+)
 electron is negatively charged (-),
 the neutron is electrically neutral (o).
Definition
 Electric Current - A flow of electric charge through a conductor is an
electrical current or, simply current. When opposite charges are placed
across a conductor, negatively charged subatomic particles move from
the negative charge to the positive charge.
 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductor
 A conductor carries electrical current without providing too much resistance to
current flow.
 Insulators are materials that resist the flow of electricity. They have electrons that
tend to retain electrons on their original atoms, making it difficult for electrons to
move and conduct electricity.
 Semiconductors are materials that are neither good conductors nor good
insulators.
PRODUCING CURRENT FLOW
 Static electricity from friction: Simply rubbing two materials together
produces a charge of static electricity.
 Thermoelectricity is electricity from heat. When two dissimilar metals are
joined, a thermoelectric charge is created when the joined metals are
heated.
 Piezoelectricity is electricity from pressure. Certain crystalline materials
produce a piezoelectric charge when a force deforms or strains the
material.
 Electrochemistry is electricity from a chemical reaction. A galvanic reaction
produces opposite electrical charges in two dissimilar metals when they are
placed in certain chemical solutions.
 Photoelectricity is electricity from light. When small particles of light called
photons strike a material, they release energy that can cause atoms to
release electrons.
 Magnetoelectricity is electricity from magnetism. The force of a magnetic
field can drive electron flow.
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS OF ELECTRICITY
 Voltage or electromotive force(E or EMF) This is the driving force behind
current flow. A difference in charge creates an electrical pressure, which
moves current in one direction. The unit of electrical pressure is the volt (V).
 Amperage or Inductive Flow (I) The rate of current flow in a closed
electrical system is measured in a unit called the ampere, frequently called
the amp.
It is equal to one Coulomb (6.280 1018 or 6 280 000 000 000 000 000
electrons) passing through one point in an electrical circuit in one second.
 Resistance (R) The length of a conductor (wire), the diameter of the
conductor, type of conductor material, and temperature of the conductor
affect the resistance to flow of current. The unit used to measure electrical
resistance is the ohm (Ω)
OHM’S LAW
Current flow is caused by electromotive force or voltage. Amperage is the
rate of current flow and may be referred to as inductive flow. Resistance (R)
refers to the ability of a conductor to resist current flow and is measured in
ohms. Voltage (V), amperage (I), and resistance (Ω) in an active electrical
circuit are related through Ohm’s law:

V = IR
Power
Power is the rate at which work is accomplished; it is work or energy released
divided by time. The electrical unit of power is watt. In theory, the watt can be
related to other measures of power:

1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts

1 watts = 3.413 Btu/hr
1,000 watt = 1 kilowatt (kW)

On a direct current circuit, voltage (V) and amperage (I) are related to
wattage through the DC power equation, Also known as Joule’s Law:

P = VI
1. A lamp is designed for use at 120 V and has a current draw of 0.5 A.
Determine the power consumed. The power consumed by the lamp is
calculated as follows:
P =VI =120 V x 0.5 A = 60 W

2. An electric iron is rated at 1 kW, 250 V. Calculate the current taken by it if it is

connected to 220 V supply.
ENERGY

 If power used by an appliance is multiplied by the amount of time that the

unit operates, the energy consumption value or amount of work
accomplished is determined.
The standard billing for energy consumption is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is
equivalent to1000 watt-hours.

q = Pt
A 60 W lamp remains lighted for 24 hours per day for 30 days. Determine (a)
the electrical energy consumed over this period, (b) the energy charge for the
billing period at a rate of Php 5.93/kWh
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
The Basic Electrical Circuit
An electric circuit is a continuous path along which an electric current can
flow. A simple circuit is composed of a power source (e.g., battery or
generator); the load, an electrical component or group of components that
consume electricity (e.g., a lamp or appliance); and a set of conductors that
carry current from the source to the load (e.g., wires). See Figure. If the circuit is
broken at any point, current will not flow.
 Closed Circuit A closed circuit is an uninterrupted path that allows a
continuous flow of current through an electrical conductor.
 Open Circuit If the path of current flow in a circuit is interrupted or
opened (turned off), an open circuit results.
 Switched Circuit A switch is installed in a circuit (c) to allow the
circuit to open or close to control operation of the lamp.
CIRCUITING CONFIGURATION

 There are two basic types of circuiting configurations used in

electrical systems: series and parallel.

 A SERIES circuit is connected so that current passes through each

component in the circuit without branching off to individual components in
the circuit.
Although a series circuit requires fewer connections, if one lamp fails the
circuit becomes open and all lamps go out (like a string of low-cost
Christmas lamps).
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series
is the sum of the individual resistances.
Components in a series circuit share the
same amperage, so the total amperage in a
series circuit is equal to the sum of the
individual amperages:

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰 𝟏 = 𝑰 𝟐 = 𝑰 𝟑

Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the

sum of the individual voltage drops:

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑

Total resistance in a series circuit is equal to

the sum of the individual resistances, making
it greater than any of the individual
resistances:

𝑹 𝑻 = 𝑹 𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹 𝑵 = ∑ 𝑵
𝒏 𝟏 𝑹𝒏
Example
1. Four coils having resistances of 3, 5, 10 and 12 ohms are connected in series
across 120 V. Determine (a) equivalent resistance of the circuit, (b) current
flowing through the circuit and (c) voltage drop across individual coils.
Components in a parallel circuit share the
same voltage, so the total voltage in a
parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the
individual voltages

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑

Total amperage in a parallel circuit is equal to

the sum of the individual branch amperages:
𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑

Total resistance in a parallel circuit is less than

any of the individual resistances:

𝟏
𝑹𝑻 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + + ⋯ + ∑𝑵
𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝑵 = 𝒏 𝟏𝑹
𝒏
Example
The equivalent resistance of four resistors joined in parallel is 20 ohms. The
currents flowing through them are 0.6, 0.3, 0.2 and 0.1 ampere. Find the value
of each resistor.
 Electrical
Materials and Equipment
Power Generation
and Transmission
 Power Station – it is an industrial facility that houses the prime
mover, electric generator and auxiliaries for conversion of
mechanical energy, chemical energy and/or nuclear energy into
electrical energy. It is a facility or system for the generation of
electric power.
Building Electrical
Service Equipment
Building electrical service equipment includes the
following:
 Service Entrance Conductors

 Service Entrance
 Switchboards
 Panelboards
 Building Transformer
Service Entrance Conductors
 Service Entrance Conductors –
conductors that carry power from the
transformer through a metering device to
the building’s service disconnects. These
may be overhead or underground.
 Service drop – overhead wires extend
from a pole-mounted distribution
transformer to the building’s service
entrance. Overhead service entrance
conductors extending from pole-mounted
transformers
 Service Lateral – underground (buried)
service entrance conductors.
Service Entrance
 Service Entrance – it includes the components that connect the utility-
supplied wiring (the service lateral or service drop) to the service
disconnect, excluding the utility’s metering equipment.
 Service Entrance Equipment – receives the service entrance
conductors. The service equipment includes a method of measuring
power (metering equipment), a method of cutting off power (main
disconnect or switch gear), and overcurrent protection devices (circuit
breakers or fuses) that protect the service entrance conductors.
 Service Disconnect – it is a required part of the service entrance
equipment that allows electrical service from the utility company to be
switched off so that power is disconnected to the building installation.
It is a set of fuses or a circuit breaker that protects the service entrance
conductors.
Switchboards and Panelboards
 Switchboard – it is a large cabinet or assembly of metal
cabinets in which is connected disconnecting switches,
overcorrect protection devices (fuses or circuit breakers), other
protective devices, and instruments designed to divide large
amounts of electrical current into smaller amounts of current
used by electrical equipment.
 Panelboard – it is one or more metal cabinets that serve as a
single unit, including buses, automatic overcurrent protection
devices (fuses or circuit breakers). It is equipped with or
without switches for the control of light, heat, and power
circuits.
Switchboards and Panelboards
Building Transformers

 Transformers – are used in transmitting and distributing

power from the power plant to a substation. The operation of
a large commercial installation depends on power
distribution that, in turn, depends on transformers used to
change voltage, current, and phase of electrical power
nearby and within a building.
 Building transformers are rated in kVA. Typical sizes used in
buildings include 3, 6, 9, 15, 25, 30, 37.5, 45, 50, 75, 112.5,
150, 225, 300, 500, 750, 1000, 1500 kVA, and larger.
 A step-down transformer steps down the voltage applied to
it. A step-up transformer is steps up the voltage applied to it.
Step-down transformers are typically used in buildings to
reduce building system voltages to useable levels.
Overcurrent Protection
 Overcurrent protection (OCP) devices – they safeguard the
building service or an individual circuit from excessive current
flows. It protects the circuit components from severe
overheating when current flowing through the circuit reaches
an amperage that will cause an excessive or dangerous
temperature rise in conductors.
 Fuses and circuit breakers serve as automatic overcurrent
protection devices. They are designed to open a circuit if the
amount of current, in amps, that flows through the circuit
exceeds the OCP device rating.
Circuit Breakers
Circuit Breaker – it is a device
designed to open (or trip) and close a Circuit Symbol
circuit by non-automatic means and to
open the circuit automatically on a
predetermined overcurrent without
damage to itself when properly applied
within its rating.
Fuses
Fuse – it is an overcurrent Circuit Symbols

protective device with a circuit-

opening fusible part that is heated
and severed by the passage of
overcurrent through it.
General Classification of Fuses
1. Cartridge Fuse – it is enclosed in
insulating tube.
2. Plug Fuse – it is enclosed in porcelain or
rubber commonly used in various
electrical appliances.
3. Fuse Wire – opened wire of low melting
point commonly used in the safety power
switch.
4. Non-time delay fuse – holds five times
its rating for ¼ to 2 seconds (not ideal to
loads which requires more than 2 seconds
to accelerate).
5. Dual-element time delay fuse – holds
five times the rating for 10 seconds.
Standard Ampere Ratings of Fuses and
Fixed Trip Circuit Breakers
based on the PEC
 The standard ampere ratings for fuses and inverse time
circuit breakers shall be considered:

 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 125, 150,
175, 200, 225, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 600, 700, 800, 1000,
1200, 1600, 2000, 2500, 3000, 4000, 5000, and 6000 amperes

 PEC – Philippine Electrical Code

OCP Device Ratings

OPDs have two current ratings: overcurrent and

amperes interrupting current.
 Overcurrent Rating – is the highest current it
can carry continuously without exceeding a
specific temperature limit (e.g., without
overheating).
 Interrupting Capacity – it is the current that a
fuse is able to interrupt without being
destroyed or causing an electric arc with
unacceptable duration.
Utilization Equipment
and Devices
 Utilization equipment – it is a broad category of electrical or
electronic machine or instrument designed to perform a
specific mechanical, chemical, heating, or lighting function
through the use of electrical energy.
 Electric Appliance – it an end-use piece of utilization
equipment designed to perform a specific function such as
cooking, cleaning, cooling, or heating.
 Electrical Device – it is a component in an electrical system
that is designed to carry but not use electricity. This includes
components such as switches, receptacles, and relays.
Outlets, Receptacles and Plugs
 Outlet – it is the location in a branch circuit where electricity is
used. For example, a lighting outlet is the location in a branch circuit
where conductors provide power to a light fixture.
 Receptacle – it is a female connecting device with slotted contacts.
It is installed at an outlet or on equipment, where it is intended to
easily establish an electrical connection with an inserted plug.
 Plug – it is a male connecting device that has two or more prongs
that are inserted into a receptacle to connect to an electrical circuit.
Switches
Switch – it is an electrical component
that can break an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it
from one conductor to another.

Switches Symbol Switches Symbol

Single Pole S Three Way/Four- S3W / S4W
Way
Duplex (2 single pole S2 Automatic Door SAD
switch on one switch
plate)
Triplex (3 single pole S3 Key Operated SK
switch on one switch
plate)
Double Pole S2P Master Selector SM
Three-Pole S3P Remote Control SRM
 Switches
Switches Description Symbol

Single A simple on-off switch: The two terminals

pole, are either connected together or
SPST
single disconnected from each other. An
throw example is a light switch.

Single A simple changeover switch: C (COM,

pole, Common) is connected to L1 or to L2.
SPDT
double
throw

Double
pole, Equivalent to two SPST switches
DPST
single controlled by a single mechanism
throw
Equivalent to two SPDT switches
Double controlled by a single mechanism.
pole,
DPDT
double
throw
Switches for Lamp Controls

1. SPST (single pole single throw) switch – used to control a

single or group of lamps from one location. The switch has
only two terminals.
 Switches for Lamp Controls
2. SPDT (single pole double throw) or three way switch – used to control
a single lamp from two different locations. The switch has three terminals.
 Switches for Lamp Controls
3. Four-way switch – used to control a single lamp from three or more
different locations. The switch has four terminals.

For lamp’s control from three or more locations, there should always be two 3-way
switches and the rest, are 4 way switches.

4 locations – two 3-way switches and two 4-way switches

5 locations – two 3-way switches and three 4-way switches
6 locations – two 3-way switches and four 4-way switches
Disconnects
Disconnect (Safety Power Switch) –
a mechanical switching device used to
isolate a circuit or an equipment from
the supply side. It could either be
fused or non-fuse type.

Standard Ratings of Disconnects in

Amperes:
30, 60, 100, 200, 400, 600, 800, 1200,
1400, 1600 and 1800
Conductors
 Electrical Conductor – it is any material that conducts electrical
current. Electrical conductors are either solid or stranded. Solid
conductors are a single solid length of conductor called a wire.
Stranded conductors consist of smaller wire strands. Conductors may
be insulated or bare.
 Bus bar – it is an electrical conductor (usually copper or aluminum)
that serves as a common connection for two or more electrical circuits.
Buses are typically solid bars used for power distribution. They are
commonly found in panelboards, switchboards, and other power
distribution equipment. Busbars are either flat strips or hollow tubes.
 Cable – contains more than one conductor bundled together in a
factory assembly of wires. An outer sheathing encases and protects the
conductors, simplifying installation of multiple wiring
Conductors
 Insulated Conductor – conductor encased within material of
composition or thickness recognized by the PEC as electrical
insulation.
 Covered Conductor – conductor encased within material of
composition or thickness that is not recognized by the PEC as
electrical insulation.
 Bare Conductor – a conductor having no covering or
electrical insulation whatsoever.
 Cable – a stranded conductor or a group of conductors
insulated from one another.
 Raceway – an enclosed channel for holding wires, cables or
busbars.
Building Wires
Thermoplastic Cables. Single insulated conductor of solid or stranded
bare annealed high conductivity copper, with thermoplastic lead free
insulation of PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) and protected by a nylon jacket;
normally designed to operate up to 600 V.
Conductor Application
and Insulations
Wire Coding and Identification

Codes printed on the thermoplastic insulation.

Identify the wire as suitable for use in conduit: (a) THHN; (b)
THWN
Conductor Ampacity
 Conductor’s Ampacity – it is the maximum current it can
carry continuously without exceeding the temperature
limitations of the insulation and sheathing material.
 Ampacity is based on the following:
a. Wire thickness
b. Type of conductor material
c. Insulation and sheathing type
d. Number of conductors bundled in the sheathing
e. Tmperature and exposure of the conductor
Ampacity Table based on the PEC
Enclosures and Raceways
 Enclosures – are electrical boxes and cabinets made of metal (e.g., steel,
galvanized steel, aluminum, and so on) or nonmetallic (plastic) materials
that provide protection for conductors, connections, controls, and other
electrical equipment.
 Electrical boxes – are metal and non-metallic (plastic) enclosures that hold
devices such as switches or outlets and safely permit wiring connections.
Boxes are available in four primary shapes: square, rectangular, octagonal,
or round.
 Junction boxes (J-boxes) – are a special type of electrical box used to
enclose conductor connections. Connections are commonly called junctions
in the trade.
 Pull box – is a type of junction box that allows access to a raceway for
snaking conductors through the raceway. Knockouts in most boxes and
other enclosures can be easily removed to allow wiring to enter the box.
Conduit and Other Raceways
 Raceway – is an enclosed channel such as a conduit, tube, or gutter
designed for holding wires, cables, or busbars.
 Types of Conduits:
a. Rigid metal conduit
b. Intermediate metal conduit (IMC)
c. Electrical metallic tubing (EMT)
d. Electrical nonmetallic tubing (ENT)
e. Rigid nonmetallic conduit
f. Flexible metal conduit
g. Liquid tight flexible metal conduit
h. Liquid tight flexible nonmetallic conduit
i. Cellular concrete floor raceways
Conduit Sizes based on the PEC
Busways and Wireways
 Busway – is of a standardized, factory-assembled enclosure
consists of outer duct-like housing, bus bars, and insulators.
 Wire gutters or wireways – are metal sheet or nonmetallic,
flame-resistant plastic troughs that serve as a housing that
encloses and protects conductors.
Electric Motors
 In homes, electric motors are found in refrigerators, freezers,
dishwashers, kitchen sink waste disposal, portable kitchen
appliances, exhaust and ventilation fans, clothes washers and
dryers, furnaces, air conditioners, and paddle fans.
Motor Ratings based on the PEC