Lecture 6: Sensation and Vision

6.1. What is the comparative approach?

6.2. What are sensory thresholds? Explain absolute

threshold and Difference thresholds

6.3. What is visual acuity and colour vision?

6.4. What is the blind spot?

6.5. What is colour blindness? Name the two theories that

explain colour vision.
6.1. What is the comparative approach?

Comparative research, simply put, is the act of comparing two or more things with a view
to discovering something about one or all of the things being compared. This technique often
utilizes multiple disciplines in one study. When it comes to method, the majority agreement is
that there is no methodology peculiar to comparative research. The multidisciplinary
approach is good for the flexibility it offers.
Comparative research is a research methodology in the behavioural sciences that aims to
make comparisons across various dimensions. Some examples are:
• Biology – across similar animals to determine speciation
• Anatomy – across different species to determine commonalities and differences in
their physical structure
• Ethology – comparing human behaviour with other animals to determine common
[and different] behavioural traits
• Cultures – to determine commonalities and differences across national cultures in
terms of cultural norms, personality, definition of poverty, etc
• History – comparing people and political beliefs across historical time
• Sensory psychology – comparing different sensory systems [vision, hearing, taste,
smell, touch, etc] to determine commonalities/differences in these fundamental
sensory systems
Development/tradition of comparative research
Comparative research should be seen as part of the scientific spirit that arose in Greece in the
6th century and the overall appreciation of knowledge and learning that was characteristic of
this time. It was at this time in Greece that scientific enquiry began [developing the form and
activity in the field of logos] and marked by a decrease in cognitive closure and the
advancement of empirical inquiry, logical argument and the search for truth. Comparative
approaches gave rise to genuine curiosity of the similarities and differences between objects
[people, animals, plants, rocks, etc]. It was this comparative approach that appears to have
created the notion of individual differences and the strong [cultural sense of individualism] in
European nations [see cultural dimension individualism and collectivism in first lecture of
this series]. Textbooks on this form of study were beginning to appear by the 1880s, but its
rise to extreme popularity began after World War II [encouraged by the rise of technology
and the push for Globalization].
Political implications
The comparative approach strengthened the science of measurement and quantitative analysis
[in contrast to observation and qualitative/philosophical discussion]. The general method of
comparing things is the same for comparative research as it is in everyday thinking in regards
to the practice of comparison. Like cases are treated alike, and different cases are treated
differently; the extent of difference determines how differently cases are to be treated. The
current notions of racism, sexism, ageism, elitism, etc are based on historical comparative
analyses that determined differences and lead societies to politically create opportunities for
one group and to inadvertently discriminate against the other.
Limitations to comparative research
In line with how a lot of theorizing has gone in the last century, comparative research does
not tend to investigate and evaluate grand theories – comparative research does not develop
research that will evaluate critical theories and lead to falsification. Comparative research
instead occupies itself with describing aspects of human/social systems. A good example of
the current use of this approach is the development and use of the current Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). The DSM-5 is a
classification and diagnostic tool of mental disorders and is the universal authority for
psychiatric diagnosis. While it does make treatment recommendations, it does not explain the
cause or aetiology of the disorders – it just describes the different types of mental disorders.
In conclusion, most researchers would contend that all aspects of life can be the subject
matter of comparative inquiries.

Consider watching the following video

[run time: 27.46 minutes]:

This half-hour video is an overview of

sensation and should be browsed rather
than viewed – focusing on the first
definitions of sensation, sensory
stimuli and the concept of transduction
6.2. What are sensory thresholds? Explain absolute
threshold and Difference thresholds

Sensory threshold
In the measurement of sensory abilities [called psychophysics], sensory threshold is the
weakest [or lowest intensity] stimulus that an organism/human can detect. This can be
determined for each of the major sensory system. For example
• In vision – lowest intensity of light detected in a totally dark room
• In hearing – the lowest level of sound detected in a totally quiet environment
• In taste – the least amount of a chemical [say salt in a litre of distilled water] that a
person can detect the taste of salt
• In smell – the least amount of chemical [say drops of perfume] that a person can
detect in a standard size room
• In touch – the lightest touch of a feather on a person’s skin to get them to recognize
that they have been touched
Unless otherwise indicated, it is usually defined as the weakest stimulus that can be detected
half the time, for example, as indicated by a point on a probability curve. This is called the
absolute threshold

Absolute threshold
In neuropsychology and psychophysics, an absolute threshold was originally defined as the
lowest level of a stimulus —light, sound, touch, etc.—that an organism/human could detect.
Under the influence of signal detection theory, absolute threshold has been redefined as the
level at which a stimulus will be detected a specified percentage (often 50%) of the time. The
absolute threshold can be influenced by several different factors, such as the subject's
motivations and expectations, cognitive processes, and whether the subject is adapted to the
stimulus [called sensory adaptation]. Examples of shifts in absolute thresholds include:
• Vision – amount of light energy required to detect an image in a darkened room to a
well-lit room.
• Hearing – ability to hear your best friend in a quiet room compared to a very noisy
party or concert.
The absolute threshold [lowest level of stimulus required to detect its presence] can be
compared to the difference threshold, which is the measure of how different two stimuli
must be for the subject to notice that they are not the same.

Difference threshold [or Just Noticeable Difference]

Difference threshold defined as the level at which an increase in a detected stimulus can be
perceived. In the branch of experimental psychology that is focused on sensation and
perception, this difference threshold is often referred to as a just-noticeable difference or
JND and is the amount that something must change in order for a difference to be noticeable,
detectable at least half the time. Three scientists have attempted to measure difference
thresholds and have all contributed to the understanding of sensory processes.

Weber’s law – difference thresholds for various sensory systems varied in the amount of
stimulus change [physical change] required to detect the change [psychological judgment of
change]

• Vision – brightness = 1 to 60
• Hearing – loudness = 1 to 10
• Taste = 1 to 5
• Touch – pressure on skin = 1 to 7
• Kinesthesis – lifting weights – 1 to 50

Fechner’s law – discovered the greater the base stimulus, the greater the change/increase in
the stimulus before a person would indicate they notice a difference. For example, a small
change in volume can be detected if the TV volume is low, but much more volume change is
required if the TV is already very loud.

Stephens’ law – modified Fechner’s law because it did not apply to all stimuli and senses.
For instance, perceived pain and the intensity of the pain stimuli is the opposite to the ratios
above – that is, the greater the perceived pain, the lest additional intensity is required to
detect a just noticeable difference.

Consider watching the following video

[run time: 9.26 minutes]:

This video clearly covers the two key sensory

thresholds: absolute threshold and [just
noticeable] difference threshold
6.3. What is visual acuity and colour vision?
Visual acuity is a measure of the spatial resolution of the visual processing system. Visual
acuity is tested by requiring the person whose vision is being tested to identify so-called
optotypes – stylized letters on a printed chart from a set viewing distance. Optotypes are
represented as black symbols against a white background (i.e. at maximum contrast). The
distance between the person's eyes and the testing chart is set so as to approximate "optical
infinity" in the way the lens attempts to focus (far acuity), or at a defined reading distance
(near acuity). Visual acuity is typically measured while fixating, i.e. as a measure of central
(or foveal) vision, for the reason that it is highest there
The standard chart is the Snellen chart [this is frequently used for visual acuity testing]:

Visual Acuity is dependent on optical and neural factors, i.e., (i) the sharpness of the retinal
focus within the eye, (ii) the health and functioning of the retina, and (iii) the sensitivity of
the interpretative faculty of the brain. A common cause of low visual acuity is refractive
errors and includes aberrations in the shape of the eyeball. Too high or too low refractive
error (in relation to the length of the eyeball) is the cause of nearsightedness (myopia) or
farsightedness (hyperopia). Another optical cause is astigmatism [complex corneal shape
irregularities. These anomalies can mostly be corrected by optical means (such as eyeglasses,
contact lenses, laser surgery, etc.). The two major neural factors that limit acuity located in
the retina are detached retina and macular degeneration, to name just two.
Colour vision
Color vision is the ability of a human to distinguish objects based on the wavelengths (or
frequencies) of the light. The human eye detects light that is reflected, emitted, or transmitted
from objects. Colors can be measured and quantified in various ways; indeed, a person's
perception of colors is a subjective process whereby the brain responds to the stimuli that are
produced when incoming light reacts with the several types of cone cells in the eye. In reality,
different people see the same illuminated object or light source but may name or respond in
different ways. Note, colour perception – while all people from all cultures are
physiologically capable of detecting all colours – some cultures do not have names for some
colours or cannot readily distinguish between some colours. For example they may indicated
a shade of grey for all greens and all blues [no matter what wavelength]

Wavelengths equal different perceptual colours

The pure colors are, from long to short wavelengths (and, correspondingly, from low to high
frequency), red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and violet. Sufficient differences in
wavelength cause a difference in the perceived colour [just-noticeable difference]. Although
the human eye can distinguish only a few pure colours [across the spectrum], when those
pure spectral colors are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of
distinguishable colours can be quite high.
Black and white [night/low light] vision
In very low light levels, visual stimuli [light] is detected by rod cells of the retina. Rods are
maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm, and play little, if any, role in color vision.
Colour [day/normal light] vision
In brighter light, such as daylight, vision stimuli [light] is detected by cone cells which are
responsible for color vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most
sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm. The perception of "white" is formed by the entire
spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few wavelengths. In humans, white
light can be perceived by combining wavelengths representing red, green, and blue, or a pairs
of complementary colors such as green and red; and blue and yellow.

Consider watching the following short

video [run time: 1.55 minutes]:

This video provides a simple explanation of

the structure and function of the
different regions of the retina
6.4. What is the blind spot?

A blind spot [or scotoma] is an obstruction of the human visual field. This particular blind
spot is the place in the visual field that corresponds to the lack of light-detecting
photoreceptor cells on retina [or optic disc].
This is the location where the optic nerve passes through the optic disc. The optic nerve is
made up of inter-neurons [cells that carry information from the eye to the brain but do not
detect light]. At this point, the visual field is blind, that is, the corresponding part of the visual
field [what humans look at is not visible].
Image A – shows a cross section of the eye and show the blind spot [optic nerve] is not
directly behind the pupil and therefore not in the direct line of sight

Image B – is an opthalmoscopic image showing the fovea [centre of vision], the surrounding
macula, and the geographical separation of the optic disc [blind spot].

Image C – shows that the blind spot in each eye is on the nasal side of each eye and therefore
the other eye sees what blind spot occludes

Image D – shows that the retinal cells that pick up detail [visual acuity and colour vision] are
located in the fovea and away from the blind spot.

Humans are not aware of the blind spot [lack of vision] because:
• See with both eyes and the visual image in one eye provides visual information for the
other
• Perception processes [in the brain] interprets what the blind spot should from the
surrounding detail
• Humans look for what is present [objects], not what is absent

Test for Blind spot

Consider watching the following short
video [run time: 2.54 minutes]:

This video provides a simple explanation and

demonstration of the blind spot [where
the optic nerve leaves the retina]
6.5. What is colour blindness? Name the two theories that
explain colour vision.

Colour blindness
Color blindness [or color vision deficiency] is the inability or decreased ability to see color,
or perceive color differences, under normal lighting conditions. There is no actual blindness
but there is a deficiency of color vision. The most usual cause is a fault in the development of
one or more sets of retinal cones that perceive color in light and transmit that information to
the optic nerve. This type of color blindness is usually congenital [inherited] and sex-linked. .
The [missing or damaged] genes that produce photo-pigments are carried on the X
chromosome. Thus, color blindness will be expressed in males with a higher probability than
in females because males only have one X chromosome. Color blindness is usually classified
as a mild disability, although in some camouflage conditions, color blind people are better at
detecting hidden prey. Color blindness affects as many as 8 percent of men and 0.4 percent of
women.
Normally, there are three kinds of cone cells, each containing a different pigment, which are
activated when the pigments absorb light. The spectral sensitivities of the cones differ; one is
most sensitive to short wavelengths [blue], one to medium wavelengths [green], and the third
to medium-to-long wavelengths [red].

Types of colour blindness

1. Monochromacy, also known as "total color blindness", is the lack of ability to

distinguish colors (and thus the person views everything as if it were on a black and
white television). Monochromacy occurs when two or all three of the cone pigments
are missing and color and lightness vision is reduced to one dimension.

2. Dichromacy is a moderately severe color vision defect in which one of the three basic
color mechanisms is absent or not functioning. There are two main types.
• Protanopia is a type of color vision deficiency caused by the complete absence of
red retinal photoreceptors. People with type of colour blindness have difficulties
to distinguish between blue and green colors and also between red and green
colors. It is hereditary, sex-linked, and present in 1% of males.
• Deuteranopia is a type of color vision deficiency where the green photoreceptors
are absent. It affects colour discrimination in the same way as protanopia. Like
protanopia, it is hereditary, sex-linked, and found in about 1% of the male
population.

Ishihara test of colour blindness

The Ishihara test is a color perception test for detecting color deficiencies. It was named
after its designer, Dr. Shinobu Ishihara, a professor at the University of Tokyo, who first
 published his tests in 1917. The test consists of a number of colored plates, each of which
contains a circle of dots appearing randomized in color and size. Within the pattern are
dots which form a number or shape clearly visible to those with normal color vision, and
invisible, or difficult to see, to those with a red-green color vision defect, or the other way
around.

Example of an Ishihara color test plate. The number

"74" should be clearly visible to viewers with
normal color vision. Viewers that are dichromat
[red-green] read it as "21", and viewers that are
monochromat see nothing.

Consider watching the following video

[run time: 7.06 minutes]:

This video is a test demonstration of one of

the measures of colour blindness [The
Ishahara test of colour blindness]
There are two major theories that attempt to explain colour vision

1. Trichromatic theory of colour vision

The Young–Helmholtz theory (based on the work of Thomas Young and Hermann von
Helmholtz in the 19th century) is a theory of trichromatic color vision – the manner in which
the photoreceptor cells in the eyes of humans work to enable color vision. In 1802, Young
postulated the existence of three types of photoreceptors (now known as cone cells) in the
eye, each of which was sensitive to a particular range of visible light. Hermann von
Helmholtz developed the theory further in 1850: that the three types of cone photoreceptors
could be classified as short-preferring (blue), middle-preferring (green), and long-preferring
(red), according to their response to the wavelengths of light striking the retina. The relative
strengths of the signals detected by the three types of cones are interpreted by the brain as a
visible color. For instance, yellow light uses different proportions of red and green. The
actual existence of cells sensitive to three different wavelength was first shown in 1956

2. Opponent process theory of colour vision

The color opponent process is a color theory that states that the human visual system
interprets information about color by processing signals from cones and rods in an
antagonistic manner. The three types of cones (L for long, M for medium and S for short)
have some overlap in the wavelengths of light to which they respond, so it is more efficient
for the visual system to record differences between the responses of cones, rather than each
type of cone's individual response. The opponent color theory suggests that there are three
opponent channels: red versus green, blue versus yellow [mixture of red and green], and
black versus white [rods]. Responses to one color of an opponent channel are antagonistic to
those to the other color. That is, opposite opponent colors are never perceived together –
there is no "greenish red" or "yellowish blue".
While the trichromatic theory defines the way the retina of the eye allows the visual system to
detect color with three types of cones, the opponent process theory accounts for mechanisms
that receive and process information from cones. Though the trichromatic and opponent
processes theories were initially thought to be at odds, it later came to be understood that the
mechanisms responsible for the opponent process receive signals from the three types of
cones and process them at a more complex level. Besides the cones, which detect light
entering the eye, the biological basis of the opponent theory involves the next level of
processing visual information in the retina - bipolar cells, and ganglion cells.
Consider watching the following video
[run time: 13.59 minutes]:

This long video provides an overview of the

two theories that attempt to explain
colour vision: the Trichromatic theory
and the Opponent Process theory