Preferences by Hal Varian

P f
Preferences
© 2010 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Rationality in Economics
 Behavioral Postulate:
A decisionmaker always chooses its
most preferred alternative from its
set of available alternatives
alternatives.
 So to model choice we must model
decisionmakers’ preferences.
© 2010 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 2

Preference Relations
 Comparing
p g two different consumption
p
bundles, x and y:
– strict preference: x is more preferred
than is y.
– weak preference: x is as at least as
preferred as is y.
– indifference: x is exactly as preferred
as is
i y.

 Strict preference, weak preference
and indifference are all preference
relations.
 Particularly,
P i l l they h are ordinal
di l
y state only
relations; i.e. they y the
order in which bundles are
preferred.


 denotes strict preference;

x y means that bundle x is preferred
strictly to bundle y.


 denotes strict preference;

x y means bundle x is preferred
 denotes
d indifference;
i diff x  y means x
and y are equally y preferred.


 denotes strict preference so

x y means that bundle x is preferred
 denotes
d indifference;
i diff x  y means x
and y are equally y preferred.
  denotes weak preference;
~
x  y means x is preferred at least as
~
much as is y.

 x  y and y  x imply x  y.
~ ~

 x  y and y  x imply x  y.
~ ~
 x  y and (not y  x) imply x
 y.
~ ~

Assumptions about Preference
Relations
 Completeness: For any two bundles
x and y it is always possible to make
the statement that either
x  y
or
~
y  x.
~

Relations
 Reflexivity: Any bundle x is always
at least as preferred as itself; i.e.
ie
x  xx.
~

Relations
 Transitivity: If
x is at least as preferred as y
y, and
y is at least as preferred as z, then
x is at least as preferred as z; i.e.
ie
x  y and y  z x  z.
~ ~ ~

Indifference Curves
 Take a reference bundle x’. The set
of all bundles equally preferred to x’
x
is the indifference curve containing
x’; the set of all bundles y  x’.
x’
 Since an indifference “curve” is not
always a curve a better name might
be an indifference “set”.
set .

Indifference Curves
x2 x’  x”  x”’
x’
x”
x”’
x1
Indifference Curves
x2 z
 x
 y
x
x1
Indifference Curves
I1 All bundles in I1 are
x2
x strictly preferred to
all
ll in
i I2.
z
I2
All bundles
b dl in i I2 are
y strictly preferred to
I3
all in I3.
x1
Indifference Curves
x2
WP(x),
( ), the set of
x bundles weakly
preferred to x.
p
I(x) I( ’)
I(x’)
x1
Indifference Curves
x2
WP(x),
( ), the set of
x bundles weakly
preferred to x.
p
WP(x)
includes
I(x) I(x).
x1
Indifference Curves
x2
SP(x),
( ), the set of
x bundles strictly
preferred to x,,
p
does not
include
I(x) I(x).
x1
Indifference Curves Cannot
Intersect
x2 From I1, x  y. From
I2 F F I2, x  z.
I1 Therefore y  z.
x
y
z
x1
Indifference Curves Cannot
Intersect
x2 From I1, x  y. From
I2 F F I2, x  z.
I1 Therefore y  z. But from I1

and I2 we see y z, a
contradiction.
co t ad ct o
x
y
z
x1
Slopes of Indifference Curves
 When more of a commodity is always
preferred the commodity is a good.
preferred, good
 If every commodity is a good then
i diff
indifference curves are negatively
i l
sloped.

Good 2
Two goods
a negatively sloped
indifference curve.
Good 1

 If less of a commodity is always
preferred then the commodity is a
bad.

Good 2
One good and one
bad a
positively sloped
indifference curve.
Bad 1

Extreme Cases of Indifference
Curves; Perfect Substitutes
 If a consumer always regards units
of commodities 1 and 2 as
equivalent, then the commodities are
perfect substitutes and only the total
amount of the two commodities in
bundles determines their preference
rank-order.

Curves; Perfect Substitutes
x2
Slopes are constant at - 1.
15 I2
Bundles in I2 all have a total
8 of 15 units and are strictly
preferred
p e e ed to all
a bu
bundles
d es in
I1 I1, which have a total of
only 8 units in them
them.
8 15 x1

Curves; Perfect Complements
 If a consumer always consumes
commodities 1 and 2 in fixed
proportion (e.g. one-to-one), then the
commodities are perfect
complements and only the number of
pairs of units of the two commodities
determines the p preference rank-order
of bundles.

x2
45o Each of (5,5), (5,9)
and (9,5)
(9 5) contains
5 pairs so each is
equally
ll preferred.
f d
9
5 I1
5 9 x1

x2
45o Since each of (5,5),
(5 9) and (9,5)
(5,9) (9 5)
contains 5 pairs,
each is less
9 I2 preferred than the
bundle (9,9)
(9 9) which
5 I1 contains 9 pairs.
5 9 x1

Preferences Exhibiting Satiation
 A bundle strictly preferred to any
other is a satiation point or a bliss
point.
 What
Wh do d indifference
i diff curves look
l k like
lik
for preferences exhibitingg satiation?

Indifference Curves Exhibiting
Satiation
x2
S ti ti
Satiation
(bliss)
point
x1

Satiation
x2
S ti ti
Satiation
(bliss)
point
er
Bette
B
x1

Satiation
x2
S ti ti
Satiation
(bliss)
point
er
Bette
B
x1

Indifference Curves for Discrete
Commodities
 A commodity is infinitely divisible if
it can be acquired in any quantity;
e.g. water or cheese.
 A commoditydi isi discrete
di if it
i comes
in unit lumps of 1, 2, 3, … and so on;
e.g. aircraft, ships and refrigerators.

Indifference Curves for Discrete
Commodities
 Suppose commodity 2 is an infinitely
divisible good (gasoline) while
commodity 1 is a discrete good
(aircraft) What do indifference
(aircraft).
“curves” look like?

Indifference Curves With a
Discrete Good
Gas-
Gas-
oline Indifference “curves”
curves
are collections of
di
discrete
t points.
i t
0 1 2 3 4 Aircraft
Well Behaved Preferences
Well-Behaved
 A preference relation is “well-
behaved” if it is
behaved
– monotonic and convex.
 Monotonicity: More of any
commodity is always preferred (i.e.
no satiation and every commodity is
a good)
good).

Well Behaved Preferences
Well-Behaved
 Convexity: Mixtures of bundles are
(at least weakly) preferred to the
bundles themselves. E.g., the 50-50
mixture of the bundles x and y is
z = (0.5)x + (0.5)y.
z is at least as preferred as x or y.

Well-Behaved Preferences --
Convexity.
x2 x
x2+y
+ 2 x+y
x y is strictly preferred
z=
2 to both x and y.
2
y
y2
x1 x1+y y1
1
2
Convexity.
x2 x
z =(tx1+(1-t)y1, tx2+(1-t)y2)
is preferred to x and y
o all
for a 0 < t < 1.
y
y2
x1 y1

Convexity.
Preferences are strictly convex
x when all mixtures z
x2
are strictly
z preferred to their
component
bundles x and y y.
y
y2
x1 y1

Weak Convexity.
x’ Preferences are
z’
z weaklyy convex if at
least one mixture z
is equally preferred
x to a component
z
y bundle
bundle.
y’
y

Non Convex Preferences
Non-Convex
x2
The mixture z
z is less preferred
tthan
a xo or y
y.
y2
x1 y1

More Non
Non-Convex
Convex Preferences
x2
The mixture z
z is less preferred
tthan
a xo or y
y.
y2
x1 y1

 The slope of an indifference curve is
its marginal rate-of-substitution
rate of substitution
(MRS).
 How
H can a MRS b be calculated?
l l d?

Marginal Rate of Substitution
x2
MRS at x’ is the slope of the
indifference curve at x’
x’
x1
x2
MRS at x’ is
lim {x2/x1}
x1 0
 x2 x’ = dx2/dx1 at x’
 x1
x1
dx2 = MRS ´ dx1 so, at x’,
x2 MRS is the rate at which
the consumer is onlyy jjust
willing to exchange
commodity 2 for a small
dx2 x’ amount of commodity 1.
dx1
x1
MRS & Ind
Ind. Curve Properties
Good 2
Two goods
a negatively sloped
indifference curve
MRS < 0.
Good 1

MRS & Ind
Good 2
One good and one
bad a
positively sloped
indifference curve
MRS > 00.
Bad 1

MRS & Ind
Good 2
MRS = - 5
MRS always increases with x1
((becomes less negative)
g ) if and
only if preferences are strictly
convex
convex.
MRS = - 0.5
05 Good 1

MRS & Ind
x2 MRS decreases
MRS = - 0.5
(becomes more negative)
as x1 increases
nonconvex preferences
MRS = - 5
x1

MRS & Ind
x2 MRS is not always increasing as
x1 increases nonconvex
preferences.
MRS = - 1
MRS
= - 0.5
MRS
S=-2
x1

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