Dispositional and Trait Theories

Dispositional and Trait Theories focus on identifying and measuring individual personality
characteristics. They assume that people have inherent traits or dispositions that influence their
behaviors, thoughts, and emotions across different situations and over time.

Major assumptions of Dispositional and Trait Theories

The major assumptions of Dispositional and Trait Theories provide the foundation for
understanding and explaining personality within this framework. Here’s a detailed explanation of
these assumptions:

1. Stability over Time

Core Idea: Personality traits are relatively stable over time.

 Traits are enduring characteristics that do not change much as individuals’ age. This
stability allows for the prediction of future behavior based on past and current behavior.

 Example: An individual who is generally conscientious as a teenager is likely to continue

displaying conscientious behaviors in adulthood.

2. Consistency across Situations

Core Idea: Traits lead to consistent behavior across various situations.

 Traits are inherent characteristics that manifest similarly in different contexts. While
situations can influence behavior to some extent, underlying traits ensure a level of
consistency.

 Example: A person high in extraversion will tend to be sociable at work, at parties, and
in family gatherings.

3. Individual Differences

Core Idea: People differ in the extent to which they possess various traits, leading to unique
personalities.
  Each individual has a unique combination and degree of traits, making their personality
distinct from others. These differences account for the diversity in human behavior and
experiences.

 Example: One person might score high on neuroticism and low on agreeableness, while
another might score low on neuroticism and high on agreeableness, resulting in very
different personalities.

4. Biological Basis

Core Idea: Traits have a genetic or biological foundation.

 While environmental factors can influence the expression of traits, there is a significant
hereditary component that shapes individual personalities. Biological processes and
genetic factors play a crucial role in the development and manifestation of traits.

 Example: Studies on twins, especially identical twins, show high correlations in traits
like extraversion and neuroticism, suggesting a genetic basis for these traits.

Main proponents and their contributions

Dispositional and Trait Theories have been significantly shaped by several key figures in
psychology. Here's an overview of the main proponents and their contributions:

1. Gordon Allport

Key Contributions:

 Pioneering Work in Trait Theory: Allport is often considered the father of trait theory.
He introduced the idea that personality traits are the building blocks of personality.

 Concept of Traits:

o Cardinal Traits: Dominant traits that shape an individual's behavior in a

pervasive way. These are rare and define a person’s life (e.g., Mother Teresa's
altruism).
 o Central Traits: General characteristics that form the basic foundation of
personality. These are common traits that can describe anyone (e.g., honesty,
sociability).

o Secondary Traits: Traits that are more situational and less consistent, influencing
behavior in specific circumstances (e.g., preferences and attitudes).

Key Concepts:

 Functional Autonomy: The idea that behaviors can become independent of their original
motives over time. A person might initially start running to lose weight but continue
running because they enjoy it.

 Proprium: The core of an individual’s personality, encompassing aspects that unify self-
perception and behavior over time.

2. Raymond Cattell

Key Contributions:

 16 Personality Factor (16PF) Model: Developed a comprehensive model of personality

based on statistical analysis. He used factor analysis to identify 16 primary source traits
that describe human personality.

Key Concepts:

 Surface Traits: Observable behaviors that can be directly seen and measured.

 Source Traits: Underlying characteristics that give rise to surface traits. These are more
fundamental and stable.

3. Hans Eysenck

Key Contributions:

 Three-Factor Model (PEN Model): Proposed that personality can be reduced to three
major traits:

o Psychoticism: Associated with aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility.

 o Extraversion: Associated with sociability, liveliness, and outgoingness.

o Neuroticism: Associated with emotional instability and anxiety.

Key Concepts:

 Biological Basis of Traits: Eysenck emphasized the genetic and biological foundations
of personality traits. He believed that differences in cortical arousal underpin extraversion
and introversion.

4. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae

Key Contributions:

 Five-Factor Model (Big Five): Developed the most widely accepted model of
personality today. The Big Five traits are:

o Openness to Experience: Creativity, curiosity, and willingness to try new things.

o Conscientiousness: Organization, dependability, and diligence.

o Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, and enthusiasm.

o Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperativeness, and trust in others.

o Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.

Key Concepts:

 Comprehensive and Universal: The Five-Factor Model is considered comprehensive

and has been validated across different cultures and populations.

These proponents and their theories have significantly shaped the understanding of personality,
providing valuable insights and tools for both theoretical exploration and practical application.
 Gordon Allport

Gordon Allport (1897-1967) was a pioneering American psychologist renowned for his
extensive work in personality psychology. He is often considered one of the founding figures of
trait theory, a major approach to understanding human personality. The formal and systematic
study of personality was not recognized by the psychology establishment until Allport published
Personality: A Psychological Interpretation in 1937. The book was an immediate success and
became a classic in the study of personality. Thus, Allport served two purposes: He helped bring
personality into the mainstream, and he formulated a theory of personality development in which
traits play a prominent role.

Basic Concepts in Gordon Allport's Theory

Gordon Allport's contributions to personality psychology are profound, particularly his focus on
individuality, the proprium, and functional autonomy. Here is a detailed explanation of these
concepts:

1. Individuality

Core Idea: Each person’s personality is unique and should be studied as such.

Explanation:

 Idiographic Approach: Allport believed in the idiographic approach, which emphasizes

the study of individual cases and the unique aspects of each person's personality.

 Personal Dispositions: Allport introduced the idea of personal dispositions, which are
unique characteristics that differentiate one person from another. These include cardinal
traits (dominant traits), central traits (general characteristics), and secondary traits
(situational traits).

 Holistic View: By focusing on individuality, Allport advocated for a holistic view of

personality that takes into account the complexity and uniqueness of each person. This
approach considers the entire person, including their experiences, motivations, and the
context in which they live.

Example:
John and Lisa both share a passion for helping others, but their approaches are distinct due to
their unique personalities. John, who is highly organized and detail-oriented, volunteers at a local
hospital, handling administrative tasks and ensuring everything runs smoothly. On the other
hand, Lisa, who is spontaneous and outgoing, volunteers at a crisis hotline, where her empathetic
nature helps her connect with people in distress. This illustrates Allport’s concept of
individuality, showing how even shared motivations can manifest differently based on individual
traits.

2. Proprium

Core Idea: The proprium refers to the core of a person’s personality, encompassing aspects that
unify their self-perception and behavior over time. Allport’s term for the ego or self.

Explanation:

 Definition: Allport used the term "proprium" to describe the essential aspects of the self
that unify an individual's experiences and actions. It includes everything that makes a
person feel a sense of continuity and identity.

 Developmental Stages: Allport proposed that the proprium develops through several
stages over a person’s life:

o Bodily Sense (0-1): Awareness of the physical self. . In this stage, infants become
aware of their own existence and distinguish their own bodies from objects in the
environment. For e.g. a baby starts to realize that their hands and feet are part of
their body and can be controlled.

o Self-Identity (1-2): Realization of being a distinct and continuous person.

Children realize that their identity remains intact despite the many changes that
are taking place. For e.g. a child looks in the mirror and recognizes their reflection
as "me."

o Self-Esteem (2-3): Feelings of pride in one’s abilities and accomplishments.

Children learn to take pride in their accomplishment. For e.g. a child feels proud
after drawing a picture or building a tower of blocks.
 o Self-Extension (4-5): Understanding of oneself in relation to possessions, loved
ones, and social groups. In this stage, children come to recognize the objects and
people that are part of their own world. For e.g. a child includes their family and
friends in their self-concept, referring to their family as "my family" and friends
as "my friends."

o Self-Image (5-6): How one sees oneself and imagines others see them. Children
develop actual and idealized images of themselves and their behavior and become
aware of satisfying (or failing to satisfy) parental expectations. For e.g. a teenager
is concerned with their appearance and how their peers perceive them, often
adjusting their behavior to fit in.

o Rational Coping (6-12): Ability to deal with problems and plan for the future.
Children begin to apply reason and logic to the solution of everyday problem. For
e.g. a young adult makes plans for their career, manages daily responsibilities, and
solves complex problems at work or in personal life.

o Propriate Striving (Adolescence): Long-term goals and ambitions that give

direction to one’s life. Young people begin to formulate long-range goals and
plans. For e.g. an adult works towards significant life goals, such as advancing in
a career, starting a family, or contributing to the community.

Example:

Sarah, a 30-year-old teacher, exemplifies the concept of proprium through her coherent sense of
self that has developed over time. In childhood, she gained bodily self-awareness and formed a
distinct self-identity. As she grew, Sarah's self-esteem was built through academic and
extracurricular achievements. In adulthood, her self-image as a dedicated teacher and mentor
guides her actions and decisions. The proprium unifies these experiences, creating a continuous
and evolving self that influences her behavior

3. Functional Autonomy

Core Idea: Functional autonomy refers to the idea that some behaviors become independent of
their original motives and are sustained by new motives.
Explanation:

 Perseverative Functional Autonomy: Refers to repetitive behaviors and habits that

continue without the original motive. These behaviors are often self-sustaining and can
be seen in routines and habits.

o Example: A person might continue to smoke cigarettes out of habit, even if the
initial social or stress-related reasons are no longer relevant.

 Propriate Functional Autonomy: Refers to more complex, self-sustaining motives that

are aligned with the individual’s self-identity and goals. These motives are central to the
proprium and are integrated into the person's sense of self.

o Example: Someone who starts running to lose weight might continue running
because they enjoy it and it becomes a part of their identity as a healthy and active
person.

Example:

Mark, an entrepreneur, started his business with the primary goal of achieving financial
independence. As the business grew, he discovered a passion for innovation and community
contribution, which became his new motivations. Despite reaching financial security, Mark
continues to work tirelessly, driven by these new, self-sustaining motives. This shift illustrates
functional autonomy, where his entrepreneurial activities persist independently of their original
financial motive.

Personality Traits in Gordon Allport's Theory

Gordon Allport categorized personality traits into three distinct levels: cardinal traits, central
traits, and secondary traits. Each level represents different degrees of influence on a person's
behavior and helps to explain the complexity and variability of human personality.

1. Cardinal Traits

Core Idea: Cardinal traits are dominant traits that characterize a person's behavior across all
situations. The most pervasive and powerful human traits.
Explanation:

 Pervasiveness: Cardinal traits are so influential that they permeate almost every aspect of
a person’s life. These traits are rare and often define a person’s entire existence.

 Identification: Individuals with a cardinal trait are often known specifically for that trait,
which becomes synonymous with their identity.

Example:

 Mother Teresa: Her cardinal trait of altruism was so dominant that it defined her entire
life. Everything she did was motivated by a deep commitment to helping others, which is
evident in her work with the poor and sick.

 Machiavellian: A person whose behavior is dominated by manipulation and strategic

thinking may be described as having a Machiavellian trait, reflecting a consistent pattern
of cunning and deceit in all aspects of their life.

2. Central Traits

Core Idea: Central traits are general characteristics found in some degree in every person. They
form the basic foundation of personality. The handful of outstanding traits that describe a
person’s behavior.

Explanation:

 Moderate Influence: Central traits are not as dominating as cardinal traits but are still
significant in shaping behavior. These traits are more common and provide a general
overview of a person's personality.

 Descriptors: Central traits are used to describe someone’s overall personality. They are
the basic traits that can give a broad picture of an individual’s typical behavior.

Example:

 Honesty: A person who is generally honest will consistently display truthful behavior
across different situations. This trait influences their interactions and decision-making
processes.
  Sociability: Someone who is sociable tends to seek out social interactions and enjoys
being around others. This trait can be seen in their behavior at work, social gatherings,
and within their family.

3. Secondary Traits

Core Idea: Secondary traits are more situational and less consistent, influencing behavior in
specific circumstances. The least important traits, which a person may display inconspicuously
and inconsistently.

Explanation:

 Context-Dependent: Secondary traits are not as obvious or consistent as cardinal or

central traits. They emerge only in certain situations and can vary significantly depending
on the context.

 Specific Influences: These traits might not be apparent in a person's overall behavior but
can strongly influence their actions in particular scenarios.

Example:

 Anxiety in Public Speaking: A person might generally be confident and relaxed but
experience anxiety specifically when required to speak in public. This trait is situational
and does not define their overall personality.

 Preference for Certain Foods: Someone might generally be flexible and easy-going but
have strong preferences or dislikes for certain foods. This secondary trait emerges in
specific situations, like dining out or grocery shopping.

Assessment and Intervention in Gordon Allport's Theory

Gordon Allport emphasized the importance of understanding individual personalities through

various methods of assessment. These methods include personal document analysis, behavioral
observations, and interviews and self-reports. Each method provides unique insights into the
traits and behaviors that define an individual's personality.

1. Personal Document Analysis

Core Idea: Analyzing personal documents such as letters, diaries, and autobiographies to gain
insights into an individual's personality.

Explanation:

 Rich Qualitative Data: Personal documents offer a wealth of qualitative data that reveal
an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences over time. These documents provide
context and depth that are often missing in quantitative assessments.

 Longitudinal Perspective: By examining documents written over extended periods,

researchers can observe changes and consistencies in personality traits, gaining a
longitudinal perspective on personality development.

Example:

 Autobiographies: Analyzing an autobiography can reveal the central and secondary

traits of the author, as well as any cardinal traits that dominate their life story. For
example, an autobiography of a social activist may highlight their central trait of empathy
and secondary trait of leadership in specific contexts.

 Diaries: A teenager's diary might reveal their struggles with identity and self-esteem,
providing insights into their developmental stage and the proprium’s evolution.

Implications:

 Personalized Insights: This method allows for a deep, personalized understanding of an

individual’s personality, capturing the nuances and complexities of their experiences.

 Therapeutic Use: In therapy, personal document analysis can help therapists understand
their clients’ perspectives and experiences, aiding in the development of tailored
interventions.

2. Behavioral Observations

Core Idea: Observing behavior in naturalistic or structured settings to understand personality

traits.

Explanation:
  Naturalistic Settings: Observing individuals in their everyday environments (e.g., at
home, work, or school) provides insights into how they behave in real-life situations. This
method captures spontaneous and authentic behaviors.

 Structured Settings: In more controlled environments, specific scenarios or tasks are

designed to elicit certain behaviors. This helps in assessing how individuals respond to
particular stimuli or challenges.

Example:

 Classroom Observation: Observing a child in a classroom setting can reveal central

traits like sociability or conscientiousness. For instance, a child who actively participates
and helps peers may display traits of sociability and altruism.

 Workplace Assessment: Observing employees during a team project can highlight

leadership qualities, teamwork skills, and stress management, which are central traits
relevant to their professional roles.

Implications:

 Real-World Relevance: Behavioral observations provide data that are directly applicable
to real-world situations, making the findings highly relevant for practical interventions.

 Behavioral Interventions: Understanding how individuals behave in different settings

can inform the development of behavioral interventions aimed at improving specific
skills or addressing problematic behaviors.

3. Interviews and Self-Reports

Core Idea: Gathering information through direct interaction and self-assessment questionnaires.

Explanation:

 Interviews: Structured, semi-structured, or unstructured interviews allow researchers and

therapists to explore an individual’s personality by asking direct questions about their
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This method provides flexibility and depth.
  Self-Reports: Questionnaires and surveys where individuals assess their own traits and
behaviors offer a convenient way to collect data on a large scale. These tools can be
standardized for consistency and reliability.

Example:

 Clinical Interviews: A therapist conducting an in-depth interview with a client can

identify central and secondary traits by exploring the client’s life history, current issues,
and goals. This helps in forming a comprehensive treatment plan.

 Personality Inventories: Self-report questionnaires like the NEO Personality Inventory

or the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator help individuals identify their central traits, such as
extraversion, agreeableness, and openness to experience.

Implications:

 Self-Awareness: Self-reports can enhance individuals’ self-awareness, helping them

understand their personality traits and how these traits influence their behavior.

 Diagnostic Tools: Interviews and self-reports are valuable tools in diagnosing personality
disorders and other psychological conditions, guiding therapeutic interventions.

4. Expressive Behavior:

Core Idea: Spontaneous, unplanned actions and expressions that reflect underlying personality
traits. These behaviors are considered difficult to change and often occur without conscious
awareness.

Explanation:

Techniques and Methods

1. Voice Analysis

 Focus: Tone, pitch, speed, and intonation.

 Example: A person’s tendency to speak rapidly when nervous can indicate underlying
anxiety.

2. Facial Expression Analysis

  Focus: Movements of facial muscles, which are linked to specific emotions and
personality traits.

 Example: Frequent smiles might indicate high levels of extraversion and agreeableness.

3. Gesture and Posture Analysis

 Focus: Body movements and posture during various activities.

 Example: Restless movements or fidgeting during a task can reveal nervousness or

impatience.

4. Handwriting Analysis

 Focus: Style, pressure, and flow of handwriting.

 Example: Large, bold handwriting might suggest confidence and assertiveness.

5. Study of Values in Allport's Theory

Gordon Allport emphasized the importance of a unifying philosophy of life for mature
individuals. He believed that a person's values—core convictions about what is truly important—
form the foundation of this philosophy. Values guide an individual's efforts to find order and
meaning in life. To empirically measure these values, Allport, along with his colleagues Philip
Vernon and Gardner Lindzey, developed the Study of Values, a well-known personality test
originally published in 1931 and currently in its third edition (1960).

1. Theoretical

Focus: Pursuit of truth and knowledge.

Characteristics: Individuals with high theoretical values prioritize rational thinking, scientific
inquiry, and understanding the world through logical reasoning. They are driven by a quest for
knowledge and truth, often valuing intellectual challenges and problem-solving.

Example: Dr. Alice, a physicist, is deeply committed to understanding the fundamental

principles of the universe. She spends her career conducting experiments, analyzing data, and
publishing research in prestigious scientific journals. Her primary motivation is to uncover truths
about the physical world, regardless of practical applications or material rewards.

2. Economic

Focus: Practicality and material success.

Characteristics: People with strong economic values emphasize efficiency, utility, and financial
gain. They often prioritize work and economic outcomes, striving for tangible results and
material rewards. Their decisions are typically guided by considerations of practicality and
profitability.

Example: John, a successful entrepreneur, focuses on optimizing his business operations to

maximize profits. He meticulously analyzes market trends, implements cost-saving measures,
and seeks lucrative investment opportunities. His primary goal is to achieve financial success and
ensure the growth and profitability of his company.

3. Aesthetic

Focus: Appreciation of beauty, art, and harmony.

Characteristics: Individuals with high aesthetic values are drawn to artistic endeavors and value
sensory experiences. They appreciate beauty, form, and harmony in various aspects of life, often
engaging in or supporting artistic and creative pursuits.

Example: Emily, an art curator, is passionate about discovering and showcasing beautiful and
harmonious works of art. She spends her days organizing exhibitions, evaluating artistic pieces,
and fostering an appreciation for art among the public. Her work is driven by a deep love for
beauty and artistic expression.

4. Social

Focus: Concern for others and altruism.

Characteristics: People with high social values prioritize relationships, empathy, and helping
others. They are often involved in social and community services, driven by a desire to make a
positive impact on the lives of others and contribute to the well-being of their communities.
Example: Michael, a social worker, dedicates his career to supporting individuals and families in
need. He works tirelessly to provide counseling, resources, and advocacy for underserved
communities. His motivation stems from a genuine concern for others and a commitment to
improving their quality of life.

5. Political

Focus: Power, influence, and leadership.

Characteristics: Individuals with strong political values seek authority, leadership roles, and
opportunities to influence others and make decisions. They are motivated by the desire to shape
outcomes, lead initiatives, and wield influence within various spheres of activity.

Example: Sarah, a prominent politician, is focused on enacting policies that will shape the future
of her community. She campaigns tirelessly, builds strategic alliances, and works to gain support
for her initiatives. Her drive for leadership and influence motivates her efforts to bring about
significant change.

6. Religious

Focus: Spirituality and understanding of the cosmos.

Characteristics: Those with high religious values seek meaning in life through spiritual or
religious beliefs and practices. They are oriented towards exploring and experiencing the
transcendent aspects of existence, often engaging in religious or spiritual activities.

Example: Father Joseph, a Catholic priest, dedicates his life to spiritual guidance and religious
service. He leads worship services, provides pastoral care, and participates in religious rituals.
His actions are motivated by a deep commitment to spiritual growth and the pursuit of a higher
understanding of the divine.

Study of Values Inventory (Test)

Study of Values as a psychometric instrument:

 Purpose: To measure the relative importance of the six value types in an individual's life.

 Format: A questionnaire that presents various statements and scenarios related to the six
value types, asking respondents to rate their level of agreement or preference.
  Scoring: Responses are scored to determine the prominence of each value type for the
individual, revealing their value hierarchy.

Intervention Techniques

1. Encouraging Self-Awareness

 Description: Based on the insights gained from assessment, interventions may focus on
helping individuals become more self-aware of their traits and values. This can involve
self-reflection exercises and feedback sessions.

 Purpose: To enhance self-understanding and personal growth by recognizing how traits

and values impact behavior.

 Example: Facilitating a workshop where individuals reflect on their value types and
discuss how these values influence their personal and professional decisions.

2. Trait-Based Counseling

 Description: Tailoring counseling strategies to align with an individual's dominant

personality traits. For example, providing strategies for managing anxiety for someone
with high neuroticism or offering leadership development for someone with strong
political values.

 Purpose: To address specific issues related to an individual's personality traits and help
them develop coping strategies or skills.

 Example: Offering cognitive-behavioral strategies to help someone with high levels of

neuroticism manage stress and emotional responses.

3. Promoting Functional Autonomy

 Description: Helping individuals develop new motives and goals that are consistent with
their current traits and values, promoting personal growth and autonomy. This can
involve exploring new interests or redirecting existing goals.
  Purpose: To support individuals in achieving personal fulfillment and self-direction by
fostering the development of new, autonomous goals.
 Example: Assisting a person who initially pursued a career for economic reasons to
discover and pursue new interests that align with their evolving values and aspirations.

Conclusion:

Allport’s assessment techniques focus on understanding the complexities of individual traits and
values through various methods like personal documents and the Study of Values. Intervention
techniques aim to leverage this understanding to promote self-awareness, set meaningful goals,
and encourage personal growth based on one's traits and values.

Critical evaluation

Strengths

1. Emphasis on Individuality

 Strength: Allport’s theory highlights the uniqueness of each person’s personality,

emphasizing that individuals should be studied as unique entities rather than merely as
representatives of broader categories.

2. Comprehensive Trait Classification

 Strength: Allport’s classification of traits into cardinal, central, and secondary traits
provides a structured approach to understanding personality. This classification helps in
identifying how various traits influence behavior and personality.

3. Developmental Perspective

 Strength: Allport’s concept of the proprium and the developmental stages of personality
offer a dynamic view of personality development over time.

4. Focus on Values

 Strength: The Study of Values is a notable contribution, providing a framework to

understand and measure individual value orientations.

Weaknesses
1. Lack of Empirical Support

 Weakness: While Allport’s theory was groundbreaking, some of his concepts, such as
the proprium and the categorization of traits, lack strong empirical support.

2. Overemphasis on Traits

 Weakness: Allport’s focus on traits may oversimplify the complexity of human behavior,
as it may not fully account for situational and contextual factors that influence
personality.

3. Static View of Traits

 Weakness: The theory’s emphasis on traits might suggest that personality traits are
relatively fixed and unchanging over time, which contrasts with more dynamic and
flexible models of personality.

4. Limited Scope

 Weakness: Allport’s theory primarily focuses on trait identification and classification,

potentially neglecting other important aspects of personality, such as interpersonal
relationships and emotional processes.

Conclusion:

Gordon Allport’s trait theory has been influential in advancing the understanding of personality
by emphasizing individuality, trait classification, and the role of values. However, the theory has
limitations, including a lack of empirical support for some concepts, an overemphasis on traits,
and challenges in practical application. Despite these weaknesses, Allport’s contributions
continue to be valuable in the study of personality, providing a foundation for further research
and development in the field.
Comparison of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory and Allport's Trait Theory

Sigmund Freud: Gordon Allport: Trait

Aspect
Psychoanalytic Theory Theory
Focuses on the unconscious Emphasizes the identification
Theoretical Foundations mind, internal conflicts, and and measurement of
early childhood experiences. individual traits and values.
Id, ego, superego, defense Cardinal traits, central traits,
Key Concepts mechanisms, psychosexual secondary traits, proprium,
stages. functional autonomy.
Development through
Development through
proprium stages (bodily
psychosexual stages (oral,
sense, self-identity, self-
anal, phallic, latency,
esteem, self-extension, self-
Personality Development genital); unconscious
image, rational coping,
processes and repressed
propriate striving); conscious
memories influence
self-perception and evolving
personality.
traits.
Personality structure: id Traits categorized into
Personality Traits and (instinctual drives), ego cardinal (dominant), central
Structures (rational part), superego (general characteristics), and
(moral conscience). secondary (situational).
Techniques: personal
Techniques: free association,
document analysis,
Methodology dream analysis, projective
behavioral observations, self-
tests (e.g., Rorschach).
reports, Study of Values.
Focus on enhancing self-
Psychoanalysis aimed to understanding, trait
Intervention bring unconscious conflicts to modification, environmental
consciousness for resolution. adjustments, and skill
development.
Humanistic and functional
Deterministic view; behavior
view; personality shaped by
View of Human Nature is influenced by unconscious
traits and values, emphasizing
drives and early experiences.
individuality.
Emphasizes unconscious Focuses on conscious self-
Focus on Conscious vs.
mind; personality shaped by perception and how traits and
Unconscious
repressed content and drives. values influence behavior
References:
• Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2016). Theories of personality (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.
• https://genrica.com/vustuff/PSY405/PSY405_handouts_1_45.pdf