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1. Arrival of Europeans:

Europeans, notably the Portuguese and the British, showed interest in India's wealth.

The Portuguese established a base in Goa in 1610.

The British, through the East India Company (EIC), were more determined to establish long-term trading
bases.

2. Formation of the East India Company (EIC):

In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted permission to English merchants to form the EIC.

The British government allowed private groups to trade, but did not directly organize or fund expeditions.

The EIC was given a monopoly on trade between Britain and regions east of Africa, preventing other British
companies from trading there.

3. Shift to India:

Initially, the EIC aimed to enter the spice trade in the East Indies, but the Dutch dominated the region.

The EIC turned its focus to India, landing in Surat in 1608 and securing permission to trade in 1612 from the
Governor of Gujarat, the future Shah Jahan.

4. Slow Expansion of British Influence:

British influence grew gradually, starting with a few coastal trading bases.

By 1664, the EIC established its headquarters in Bombay, followed by a trading post in Calcutta in 1690.

The company purchased spices, silks, and cotton from Indian merchants and profited immensely from these
trades.

Over time, the EIC built a private army to protect its trading interests.

5. Formation of British Presidencies:

By the early 18th century, the EIC had three main bases in India: Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras.

These bases evolved into "presidencies," becoming major administrative and political regions under British
control.

6. Initial Benefits to India:

The British presence initially benefited Indian merchants who profited from selling goods to the British and
receiving large amounts of silver.

At first, the British mainly imported Indian goods without exporting much to India.
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7. EIC’s Growing Ambitions:

By the late 17th century, the EIC began planning for territorial expansion, envisioning "English dominion for
all time to come."

This ambition led to conflicts with the Mughal Empire.

8. Conflict with Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb:

In 1686, the EIC went to war with Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, but was defeated.

The company was forced to apologize and pay a heavy fine before being pardoned.

9. Rivalry with Other European Powers:

The EIC also faced competition from European powers, including the Portuguese and Dutch, but successfully
defeated them.

The French posed the greatest challenge, establishing their trading company in 1664 and competing with the
British for influence in India.

British general Robert Clive played a significant role in defeating the French and expanding British control
during India’s period of political instability.

1. Ranjit Singh and British Relations with Afghanistan (Early 19th Century):

Ranjit Singh, ruler of Punjab, supported the idea of an independent Afghanistan and opposed British plans to
install a pro-British ruler in Kabul.

In 1841, British forces suffered a catastrophic defeat in Afghanistan, where all their troops were killed.

2. The British in Sindh (1843):

After the loss in Afghanistan, the British sought to recover their prestige by turning their attention to Sindh, a
territory ruled by various Amirs.

Although they had no legitimate reason, British general Sir Charles Napier provoked conflict with the Amirs,
admitting it was an act of opportunistic aggression.

The British defeated the Amirs and annexed Sindh into the British Empire.

3. Annexation of Sindh (1843):

After provoking the Amirs of Sindh, the British, led by General Sir Charles Napier, defeated the Amirs and
annexed Sindh to the British Empire.

Napier famously admitted that the annexation was unjust, but claimed it was strategically advantageous.

4. Annexation of Punjab (1846–1849):

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Ranjit Singh had maintained a treaty of friendship with the British, signed in 1809.

After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the Sikh Empire faced internal conflicts and power struggles.

Fearing a British invasion, the Sikhs launched a preemptive attack, which led to their defeat at the Battle of
Aliwal in January 1846.

The Treaty of Lahore was signed, forcing the Sikhs to cede land to the British and pay a heavy indemnity.

The Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, who had assisted the British, was allowed to purchase Kashmir and
became the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.

5. The Second Sikh War (1848-1849):

The Sikhs rebelled again in 1848, but were defeated, marking the end of the Sikh Empire.

On March 30, 1849, the British formally annexed the Punjab and the North West Frontier into their empire.

6. British Frontier Policy (Durand Line, 1893):

The British aimed to create a "scientific and natural frontier" to secure their northern borders, especially
from tribal warfare.

In 1893, Sir Mortimer Durand negotiated with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan of Afghanistan to establish the
Durand Line, which became the boundary between British India and Afghanistan.

The agreement stated that neither the British nor the Afghans would interfere in each other’s territories
across the Durand Line.

Background of British Expansion

1. Conquest through Treaties:

Much of British India was acquired through military conquests, but some regions, like Hyderabad and Oudh,
were gained through treaties with local rulers.

These treaties allowed local rulers to maintain their thrones while ceding control of external affairs to the
British.

2. Role of British Residents:

The British installed residents in territories to advise and influence local rulers, further entrenching British
control.

3. Introduction of the Doctrine:

In 1852, Governor-General Dalhousie implemented the Doctrine of Lapse, which allowed the British to annex
territories when a ruler died without a natural heir.
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This policy led to the annexation of Satara, Nagpur, and Jhansi.

4. Unpopular Policy:

The Doctrine caused resentment, particularly when it was misused to justify land seizures, as seen in the
case of Oudh in 1856.

The Nawab of Oudh was declared a poor ruler, despite having legal heirs, leading to British annexation of the
territory.

Factors Contributing to British Success

5. Weakness of India:

The Mughal Empire was in decline, resulting in a fragmented India with various disunited territories and
rulers.

Many local rulers viewed the British as potential allies against their neighbors rather than as threats.

Wealthy feudal lords neglected their states, failing to implement reforms to strengthen their governance.

6. Strength of the British:

The Industrial Revolution gave Britain a technological edge, providing superior weapons and communication
methods.

The British viewed themselves as culturally superior and believed it was their duty to spread their culture.

There was a perception of India as stagnant, presenting opportunities for profitable trade and efficient
governance.

British political beliefs included an inevitability of progress and a sense of destiny to rule large parts of the
world.

Impact of British Rule

7. Addressing Warfare's Aftermath:

Despite being responsible for much of the conflict, the British aimed to restore order and stability in India.

Law and order had collapsed in many regions, leading to frequent famines and damage to historical
monuments.

The wealth of areas like Bengal was concentrated among the nobility and British rulers, with little benefit to
the ordinary Indian population.

. Conclusion:
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Overall, British expansion in India was facilitated by the combination of India's internal weaknesses, the
British technological and cultural superiority, and strategic policies like the Doctrine of Lapse. The aftermath
of British rule included efforts to stabilize the region, albeit with mixed benefits for the local population

1. Charter Act of 1833

Attempted to give Indians a more significant role in governing India.

Allowed Indians to join the civil service, but in practice, little changed.

The India Civil Service had about 1,000 British administrators chosen through exams held in England and
conducted in English.

2. Drain of Wealth

Revenue collected from Indians was largely sent to Britain rather than reinvested locally.

This process was termed the 'Drain of Wealth.'

An English official described British rule as a sponge absorbing resources from India and funneling them to
Britain.

3. Economic Exploitation

Romesh Dutt stated that British economic policies made India subservient to British industry.

Indian farmers were forced to grow raw materials for British manufacturing.

Over 150 years following the Battle of Plassey, approximately £1,000 million was transferred from India to
Britain.

This economic exploitation contributed to widespread poverty in India and resulted in devastating famines
(1877, 1878, 1889, and 1892), leading to around 15 million deaths.

4. Impact on Indian Society

By the mid-19th century, British control was well-established; however, life for Indian peasants and workers
remained largely unchanged initially.

The British avoided significant interference in religious and cultural practices, except for banning practices
like suttee in 1829.

Upper-class Indians had to adopt English customs to succeed socially and economically.

5. Changes in Administration and Education

In 1834, English became the official language of administration, replacing Persian.

In 1835, it was decided that education should be conducted in English.

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6. Growing Opposition to British Rule

As British reforms progressed, opposition from Indians increased.

Many viewed the British as foreign conquerors imposing their culture on India.

There was significant resentment toward Christian missionaries and apprehension about technological
changes, such as railways.

An Englishman in the early 19th century noted that Indians would likely rebel against British rule if given the
chance, which ultimately occurred in 1857.