Real Numbers

Set of real numbers
I/ Set of real numbers

Definition
A real number is the abscissa of a point on a grafter line called the number line.
Real numbers consist of rational numbers, integers, whole numbers, natural or
counting numbers and irrational numbers.
1-2 Natural numbers. Are the numbers that are used to count
ℕ = {1,2,3, ⋯ }
1-3 Whole numbers. Are all counting numbers, as well as zero, zero is the only
difference between natural numbers and whole numbers. It is représented by the
symbole W.
w  0,1, 2,3....
1-4- Integer: is a whole number that can be positive, negative or zero, it is

represented by the symbol ℤ
ℤ = {⋯ , −2, −1,0,1,2, ⋯ }
a
1-5- Rational numbers. Are numbers of the form where 𝑎 ∈ ℤ and 𝑏 ∈ ℤ∗ , it
b
is represented by the symbol ℚ
4 1
Example: , , 0, 6, 1.... are rational number.
5 3
Every fraction can be expressed as either
5
A terminating decimal for example = 0,625 or
8
1
A recurring decimal as = 0,16̇ where the dots indicate repetition
6
̅̅̅̅̅
Exercice . Convert 0,123 to a fraction.
1-6- Irrational numbers: starting fromℚ we will see with the help of some example
the need to introduce others number these numbers are called irrational numbers
Example1.There is no rational whose square is equal to 2 while the diagonal
of the unit side square has the square 2.
IA2  IB 2  AB 2
1  1  AB 2 B
AB2  2
I A
1
Example 2: the circumference of a circle with radius is
2
1
2𝜋𝑟 = 2𝜋 =𝜋 ∉ ℚ
2
Proof that√2 is an irrational number

p
By contradiction, we suppose that 2  such that 𝑝 ∈ ℤ and 𝑞 ∈ ℤ∗ and with
q
p and q are coprime  p  q  1
p p2
2 By squaring we obtain 2  2 so p 2  2q 2 then 2 divides p 2 this means
q q
that p 2 is even this implies that p is even
Indeed
If we suppose that p is add so p  2k  1
p 2  4k 2  4k  1, p 2  2  2k 2  2k   1, p 2  2k  1
This implies that p 2 is odd contradiction with p 2 is even.
P is even then 𝑝 = 2𝑝, and we have p 2  2q 2 then 4 p '2  2q 2 this implies q 2  2 p '2
this means that q 2 is even then q is even this is a contradiction with the fact that
p and q are relatively coprime.
We have ℕ ⊂ ℤ ⊂ ℚ ⊂ ℝ
1-8 Algebraic number

Is a number that is a root of non zero polynomial equation with rational
coefficients.
Example
𝑥 is this equation 2 x 2  3x  1  0 is an algebraic number
All rational, some irrational numbers are algebraic numbers.
2, 3,.... are algebraic numbers and irrational numbers.
1-9/ Transcendental number

Transcendental number, number that is not algebraic in the sense that is not the
root of a non-zero polynomial with rational coefficients.
The best-knonw trenscendental numbers are 𝜋 and e.
All transcendental numbers are irrationals.
1.10.Algebraic structure on a set
Definition1 (group). Let E a non-empty set equipped with a law of internal
composition ⨁,we said(𝐸, ⨁) is a group if it verify the following conditions:
a) For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐸: (𝑥⨁𝑦)⨁𝑧 = 𝑥⨁(𝑦 ⨁𝑧). (⨁ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒).
b) There exists an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐸 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 we have
𝑥⨁𝑒 = 𝑒⨁𝑥 = 𝑥 (identity) (𝑒 is the neutral factor for the operation⨁)
c) For any 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 there exist 𝑥′ ∈ 𝐸 such that 𝑥⨁𝑥′ = 𝑥′⨁𝑥 = 𝑒
(𝑥 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ⨁)
If for all 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐸: (𝑥⨁𝑦) = (𝑦 ⨁𝑥). (⨁ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) we said that
(𝐸, ⨁) is an abelian group.
Definition2 (field). Let E a non-empty set equipped with two laws of internal
composition ⨁ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⨂,we said(𝐸, ⨁, ⨂) is a field if it verify the following
conditions:
a) (𝐸, ⨁) is an abelian group.
b) (𝐸|{0}, ⨂) is a group.
c) the 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⨂ is distributive to the 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⨁ from the right and
from the left in the sense that for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐸
𝑥⨂(𝑦⨁𝑧) = (𝑥⨂𝑦)⨁(𝑥⨂𝑧)
and
(𝑦⨁𝑧)⨂𝑥 = (𝑦⨂𝑥)⨁(𝑦⨂𝑧)
If for all 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐸: 𝑥⨂𝑦 = 𝑦 ⨂𝑥 we said that (𝐸, ⨁, ⨂) is a commutative field.
Proposition. (ℝ, +,×) is a commutative field.

Indeed
For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 ℝ
a) x  0  0  x  0 (additive identity) (0 is the neutral factor for the addition
operation)
b) For any 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 ℝ there exist −𝑥 𝑖𝑛 ℝ such that x    x     x   x  0
(additive inverse)
the reciprocal of x for the addition operation is   x 
c) (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑧 = 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧) (associativity of addition)
d) (𝑥 + 𝑦) = (𝑦 + 𝑥) (commutativity of addition)
e) (𝑥 × 𝑦) × 𝑧 = 𝑥 × (𝑦 × 𝑧) (associativity of multiplication)
f) 1 × 𝑥 = 𝑥 × 1 = 𝑥 (1 is the neutral factor for the multiplication operation)
1 1 1
g)For any 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 ℝ∗ there exist 𝑖𝑛 ℝ∗ such that 𝑥 × = × 𝑥 = 1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
(multiplicative inverse)
1
(The reciprocal of x for the multiplication operation is )
𝑥
h) 𝑥 × (𝑦 + 𝑧) = (𝑥 × 𝑦) + (𝑥 × 𝑧 ) and (𝑦 + 𝑧) × 𝑥 = (𝑦 × 𝑥) + (𝑧 × 𝑥)
(distributivity of multiplication over addition)
i) (𝑥 × 𝑦) = (𝑦 × 𝑥) (commutativity of multiplication).
II/ Ordered sets
2-1 Binary relation

Definition : A binary relation ℜ from a set M 1 to a set M 2 is a set of ordered pairs
 m1 , m2  where m1  M1 , m2  M 2 , if (𝑚1 , 𝑚2 ) ∈ ℜ we said m1 is related to m2 by the
relation ℜ
We can also define binary relation from a set M on itself. That is we call relation
on a set M.
A binary relation on a set M it’s said homogenous relation
We will agree to note 𝑥ℜ𝑦 the relation 𝑥 ∈ 𝑀, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℜ.
Example
Let ℜ a binary relation defined on ℤ by 𝑥ℜ𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 2𝑦.
We write (2,1)∈ ℜ or 2ℜ1.

We write (3,5)∉ ℜ or 3ℜ5 is false.
Properties
Some important properties that homogeneous relation ℜ over set 𝐸 may have are.
a/ Reflexive
ℜ is reflexive : ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 : 𝑥ℜ𝑥
Example
The binary relation defined on ℤ by 𝑥ℜ𝑦 ⇔ |𝑥| = |𝑦| 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑣𝑒
b/ Symmetric
ℜ is symmetric : ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸 : 𝑥ℜ𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦ℜ𝑥
Example
The binary relation defined on ℤ by 𝑥ℜ𝑦 ⇔ |𝑥| = |𝑦| 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑣𝑒
c) Antisymmetric
ℜ is antisymmetric : ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸 : (𝑥ℜ𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦ℜ𝑥) ⇒ (𝑥 = 𝑦)
Example
The relation ...  ... is antisymmetric
We have if x  y and y  x this means that x  y
Indeed
x  y  x  y  0

 y  x  y  x  0 so x  y  0
x  y  0 and x  y  0 so x  y  0 then x  y
c/ Transitive
R is transitive : ∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐸 : (𝑥ℜ𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦ℜ𝑧) ⇒ 𝑥ℜ𝑧
Example
The relation .....  ..... is transitive
Order relation: is a relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive.
If ℜ is an order relation we generally note 𝑥ℜ𝑦 𝑏𝑦 x  y
Total order relation

That is reflexive , antisymmetric, transitive and for all x, y  X if x  y then xRy
or yRx , we said that  X , R  is totally ordered set.
If the order relation isn’t total we said that is partial.
Example
The relation .....  ..... is total order relation and (ℝ, ≤) is totally ordered set
( .....  ..... is the usuel order relation).
Exercice
Let ℜ a binary relation defined on ℕ by 𝑥ℜ𝑦 ⇔ ∃𝑘 ∈ ℕ ∶ 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥.
Prove that ℜ is an order relation, is it total2-3 upper and lower bounds
2.2 Upper and lower bound
Definition 1 (upper bound) Let S be a set of real numbers we say a set S is bounded
above, if there is a number 𝑀 ∈ ℝ so that x  M for all 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑆.
We call M is an upper bound of S or just a u b.
Example 1
s  3, 2 there are many u,b of s some choice are 2, 2,5, 3
The set of the u,b of s is  2, 
Example2
𝑆 = {−𝑛 + 1, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑊}
The set of the u, b of 𝑆 are 1, 
Définition 2 (lower bound)

We say a set S is bounded below if there is a number m so that x  m for all 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑆.
We call m is a lower bound of 𝑆 or just l.b
Example
S1  3, 2 , S2  ,1
The set of the L.b of 𝑆1 is ,3
The set of the L.b of 𝑆2 doesn’t exist.
Definition3.(Bounded set).we say a set 𝑆 is bounded if it is bounded above and

bounded below, that is there is a finite numbers m and M so that 𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑀 for
all 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑆, and we can write |𝑥| ≤ 𝐵, A good choice of B is to let
𝐵 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥{|𝑚|, |𝑀|} for any choice of 𝑙. 𝑏 𝑚 and 𝑢. 𝑏 𝑀.
2.3.Least upper bound and greatest lower bound

Let S be a set of real numbers bounded above and below
Definition 1 (least upper bound). The least upper bound of a set S we also called
the supremum of S and we use the notation 𝑠𝑢𝑝(𝑆) is the number 𝑈 satisfying:
1) 𝑈 is an upper bound of S
2) If M is any other upper bound of S we have 𝑈 ≤ 𝑀.
Definition 2 (greatest lower bound). The greatest lower bound of a set S we also
called the infinimum of S and we use the notation 𝑖𝑛𝑓(𝑆) is the number 𝐿
satisfying:
1)𝐿 is an lower bound of S
2)If m is any other lower bound of S we have 𝐿 ≥ 𝑚.
Example
S1  3, 2 , S2  ,1
𝑖𝑛𝑓(𝑆1 ) = −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑝(𝑆1 ) = 2.
𝑖𝑛𝑓(𝑆2 ) doesn’t exist and 𝑠𝑢𝑝(𝑆2 ) = 1
2.4. Maximum and minimum

Definition 1 (maximum). The maximum of a set S) (if it exists and we use the
notation 𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑆) is the number 𝑀 satisfying:
1)𝑀 ∈ 𝑆
2) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑆: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑀.
Definition 2 (manimum). The minimum of a set S (if it exists) and we use the
notation 𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑆) is the number 𝑚 satisfying:
1)𝑀 ∈ 𝑆
2) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑆: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑀.
Example
𝑆 = [1,3[
𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑆) = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑆)doesn’t exist
The completeness axiom.

a) Let S be a non-empty set of real numbers bounded above then the
supremum of S exist and is finite.
b) Let S be a non-empty set of real numbers bounded below then the
infinimum of S exist and is finite.
Exercice. Determine (if it exists) the upper bounds, lower bounds, the supremum,
1
the minimum, the maximum and the minimum of the set S, 𝑆 = { , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}
𝑛
Characterization of the upper bound
Let S be a non-empty set of real numbers bounded above then the
supremum of S exist and is unique and verify:
1)∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑆: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑀
𝑀 = sup 𝑆 ⇔ {
2) ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝑥0 ∈ 𝑆: sup(𝑆) − 𝜀 < 𝑥0 ≤ sup(𝑆)

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Set of real numbers

I/ Set of real numbers

1-4- Integer: is a whole number that can be positive, negative or zero, it is

Proof that√2 is an irrational number

1-8 Algebraic number

1-9/ Transcendental number

Proposition. (ℝ, +,×) is a commutative field.

II/ Ordered sets

2-1 Binary relation

We will agree to note 𝑥ℜ𝑦 the relation 𝑥 ∈ 𝑀, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℜ.

We write (2,1)∈ ℜ or 2ℜ1.

The binary relation defined on ℤ by 𝑥ℜ𝑦 ⇔ |𝑥| = |𝑦| 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑣𝑒

Order relation: is a relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive.

If ℜ is an order relation we generally note 𝑥ℜ𝑦 𝑏𝑦 x  y

Total order relation

2.2 Upper and lower bound

Définition 2 (lower bound)

Definition3.(Bounded set).we say a set 𝑆 is bounded if it is bounded above and

2.3.Least upper bound and greatest lower bound

2.4. Maximum and minimum

The completeness axiom.

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