61420: Design of Steel Structures

Introduction to Structural Design

of Steel
Monther Dwaikat
Assistant Professor
Department of Building Engineering
An-Najah National University
Structural Loads
 The building structure must be designed to carry or resist
the loads that are applied to it over its design-life. The
building structure will be subjected to loads that have been
categorized as follows:
• Dead Loads (D): are permanent loads acting on the structure.
These include the self-weight of structural & non-structural
components. They are usually gravity loads.
• Live Loads (L): are non-permanent loads acting on the structure
due to its use & occupancy. The magnitude & location of live loads
changes frequently over the design life. Hence, they cannot be
estimated with the same accuracy as dead loads.
• Wind Loads (W): are in the form of pressure or suction on the
exterior surfaces of the building. They cause horizontal lateral
loads (forces) on the structure, which can be critical for tall
buildings. Wind loads also cause uplift of light roof systems.
Structural Loads
• Snow Loads (S): are vertical gravity loads due to snow,
which are subjected to variability due to seasons &
drift.
• Roof Live Load (Lr): are live loads on the roof caused
during the design life by planters, people, or by
workers, equipment, & materials during maintenance.
• Values of structural loads can be computed based on
the design code.
Dead Loads (D)
 Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials of
construction incorporated into the building including but
not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built-
in partitions, finishes, cladding & other similarly
incorporated architectural & structural items, & fixed
service equipment such as plumbing stacks & risers,
electrical feeders, & heating, ventilating, & air conditioning
systems.

 In some cases, the structural dead load can be estimated

satisfactorily from simple formulas based in the weights &
sizes of similar structures. For example, the average
weight of steel framed buildings is 3 - 3.6 kPa, & the
average weight for reinforced concrete buildings is 5 - 6
kPa.
Dead Loads (D)
 From an engineering standpoint, once the materials and
sizes of the various components of the structure are
determined, their weights can be found from tables that
list their densities. See Tables 1.2 & 1.3, which are taken
from Hibbeler, R.C. (1999), Structural Analysis, 4th
Edition.
Dead Loads (D)
Live Loads – Summary Table
 Building floors are usually subjected to uniform live loads or
concentrated live loads. They have to be designed to safely support
these loads.

Type of occupancy kPa

Offices 2.5 - 5
Corridors 5
Residential 2
Stairs and exit ways 5
Stadiums 5
Sidewalks 12
Wind Loads
 Design wind loads for buildings can be based on: (a) simplified
procedure; (b) analytical procedure; & (c) wind tunnel or small-
scale procedure.
 Refer to ASCE 7-05 for the simplified procedure. This simplified
procedure is applicable only to buildings with mean roof height
less than 18 m or the least dimension of the building.
 The wind tunnel procedure consists of developing a small-scale
model of the building & testing it in a wind tunnel to determine
the expected wind pressures etc. It is expensive & may be
utilized for difficult or special situations.
 The analytical procedure is used in most design offices. It is
fairly systematic but somewhat complicated to account for the
various situations that can occur:
Wind Loads
 Wind velocity will cause pressure on any surface in its
path. The wind velocity & hence the velocity pressure
depend on the height from the ground level. Equation 1.3
is recommended by ASCE 7-05 for calculating the velocity
pressure (qz) in SI

qz = 0.613 Kz KztKd V2 I (N/m2)

Wind Loads
qz – Static wind pressure
V - the wind velocity in m/s
Kd - a directionality factor (= 0.85 see Table 6.4 page 80)
Kzt - a topographic factor (= 1.0)
I - the importance factor (=1.0)
Kz - varies with height z above the ground level (see Table 6.3
page 79)
exposure B structure surrounded by buildings/forests/…
at least 6m height
exposure C open terrain
Wind Loads
 A significant portion of Palestine has V = 100 km/h. At these
location

qz = 402 Kz (N/m2)

The velocity pressure qz is used to calculate the design

wind pressure (p) for the building structure conservatively
as follows:

p = q GCp (N/m2)
ASCE 7-05 pg. 79

Kz - varies with height z above the ground level

A – large city centers
B – urban/ suburban area
C – open terrain with scattered obstructions
D – Flat unobstructed surface
Wind Loads
G - gust effect factor (= 0.85)
Cp - external pressure coefficient from Figure 6-6 page 48-49
in ASCE 7-05 or
Cp = 0.8 windward
Cp = -0.5 leeward
Cp = -0.7 sidewalls
Cp = -0.7 slope<0.75
(1.5)

• Note that:
• A positive sign indicates pressure acting towards a surface.
• Negative sign indicates pressure away from the surface
Example 1.1 – Wind Load
 Consider the building structure with the structural floor plan & elevation
shown below. Estimate the wind loads acting on the structure when the
wind blows in the east-west direction. The structure is located in
Nablus.

15 m

15 m

15 m 15 m

Plan
Example 1.1 – Wind Load
6 @ 3m

6 @ 3m
Example 1.1 – Wind Load
 Velocity pressure (qz)
• Kd - directionality factor = 0.85
• Kzt - topographic factor = 1.0
• I - importance factor = 1.0
• V = 100 kph in Nablus

qz = 402 Kz (N/m2)
• Kz - varies with height z above the ground level
• Kz values for Exposure B, Case 2
Example 1.1 – Wind Load
 Wind pressure (p)
• Gust factor = G = 0.85 for rigid structures
• External pressure coefficient = Cp = +0.8 for windward walls
• Cp = -0.5 for leeward walls
• Cp = -0.7 for side walls
• External pressure = q G Cp
• External pressure on windward wall = qz GCp = 402 Kz x 0.85 x 0.8 =
273.4 Kz Pa toward surface
• External pressure on leeward wall = qh GCp = 402 K18 x 0.85 x (-0.5)
= 145.2 Pa away from surface
• External pressure on side wall = qh GCp = 402 K18 x 0.85 x (-0.7) =
203.3 Pa away from surface
• The external pressures on the structure are shown in the following
two figures.
Example 1.1 – Wind Load
203.3

273.4 Kz
145.2

203.3
Example 1.1 – Wind Load

3m
232.4

3m 221.5

3m 207.8 145.2

191.4
3m 180.4
169.5
3m
155.8
3m
Background of Structural Steel
 Economical production in large volume not available until mid 19th
century and the introduction of the Bessemer process. Steel became
the principal metallic structural material by 1890.
 Steels consists almost entirely of iron (over 98%) and small quantities
of carbon, silicon, manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and other
elements.
 The quantities of carbon affect properties of steel the most.
 Increase of carbon content increases hardness and strength
 Alloy steel – has additional amounts of alloy elements such chronium,
vanadium, nickel, manganese, copper, or zirconium.
 The American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) specifies exact
maximum percentages of carbon content and other additions for a
number of structural steels. Consult Manual, Part 2, Table 2-1 to 2-3
for availability of steel in structural shapes, plate products, and
structural fasteners.
ASTM classifications of structural
steels
 Carbon steels – A36, A53, A500, A501, A529, A570. Have
well-defined yield point. Divided into four categories:
• Low-carbon steel (< 0.15%)
• Mild steel (0.15 to 0.29%, structural carbon steels)
• Medium-carbon steel (0.3 to 0.59%)
• High-carbon steel (0.6 to 1.7%)
 High-Strength Low-Alloy steels – A242, A572, A588,
A606, A607, A618, A709
• Well-defined yield point
• Higher strengths and other properties
 Alloy Steels – A514, A709, A852, A913.
• Yield point defined as the stress at 0.2% offset strain
• Low-alloy steels quenched and tempered → 550 to 760 MPa yield
strengths
Advantages and disadvantages of
steel as a structural material
 Advantages
• High strength per unit of weight → smaller weight of structures
• Uniformity
• Elasticity
• Long lasting
• Ductility
• Toughness
• Easy connection
• Speed of erection
• Ability to be rolled into various sizes and shapes
• Possible reuse and recyclable
Advantages and disadvantages of
steel as a structural material
 Disadvantages
• Maintenance costs
• Fire protection/Fireproofing costs
• Susceptibility to buckling failure
• Fatigue
• Brittle fracture
Types of Steel
 Three basic types of steel used for structural steel
• Plain Carbon Steel
• Low-alloy steel
• High-alloy “specialty steel”
 The most commonly used is mild steel - ASTM A36

Fy  248 MPa (36 ksi )

 Typical high strength steel: Fu  400 MPa (58 ksi )

ASTM A242 ASTM A992

Fy  290  344 MPa (42  50 ksi ) Fy  344 MPa (50 ksi )
Fu  444  482 MPa (63  70 ksi ) Fu  448 MPa (65 ksi )
 The higher the steel strength, the higher the carbon content and
the less ductile it is.
Stress-strain curve
 Standard Plain Carbon Steel
P ( Load )
f 
Stress “f” A ( Area )

Necking & Fracture

Strain Hardening

Fu

Fy Yield plateau
E

L ( Deformation) Strain “”

Elastic  
Lo (Original Length)
What is a Limit State

 When a structure or structural element becomes

unfit for its intended purpose it has reached or
exceeded a limit state

 Two categories of limit states:

• Strength limit states
• Serviceability limit states
Limit States
Strength Limit States
a) Loss of Equilibrium
b) Loss of load bearing capacity
c) Spread of local failure
d) Very large deformations

Serviceability Limit States

a) Excessive deflection
b) Excessive local damage
c) Unwanted vibration
Design Philosophies

 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

 Plastic Design (PD)

 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

Allowable Stress Design
 Service loads are calculated as expected during service
life.
 Linear elastic analysis is performed.
 A factor of safety (FOS) of the material strength is assumed
(usually 3-4)
Material Strength
Allowable Stress 
FOS

 Design is satisfactory if (maximum stress < allowable

stress)
 Limitations
• Case specific, no guarantee that our design covers all cases
• Arbitrary choice of FOS?!
Plastic Design
 Service loads are factored by a “load factor”.
 The structure is assumed to fail under these loads, thus,
plastic hinges will form under these loads “Plastic Analysis”.
 The cross section is designed to resist bending moments
and shear forces from the plastic analysis.
 Members are safe as they are designed to fail under these
factored loads while they will only experience service loads.
 Limitations
• No FOS of the material is considered, neglecting the uncertainty in
material strength!
• Arbitrary choice of overall FOS?!
Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD)
 LRFD is similar to plastic design in that it performs design
with the assumption of failure! - Reliability Based Design
 Service loads are multiplied by load factors () and linear
elastic analysis is performed.
 Material strength is reduced by multiplying the nominal
material strength by a resistance factor ()
 The design rule is: Load Effect < Resistance

  i Q i  i R n This rule shall be attained

for all limit states!!

• Where Rn is the nominal strength and Q is the load effect for the ith
limit state
Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD)
 Resistance: Shear, Bending, Axial Forces
 Advantages of LRFD
• Non-case specific, statistical calculations guarantee population
behavior.
• Uniform factor of safety as both load and material factors are tied
by reliability analysis
 Probabilistic Basis for LRFD
 If we have the probability distribution of the load effect (Q)
and the material resistance (R) then:
• The probability of failure can be represented by observing the
probability of the function (R-Q)
• The probability of failure PF can be represented as the probability that
Q ≥ R:

Probability
of failure
AISC Load combinations
AISC considers the following load combinations

in design   i Qi  i Rn
1 1.4 D
2  1.2 D  1.6 L  0.5( Lr or S or R )

3  1.2 D  1.6 ( Lr or S or R )  0.5L or ( 0.8W )

 i Qi
4  1.2 D  1.6 W  0.5 L  0.5 ( Lr or S or R )
 Dead loads (D)
5  1.2 D  1.0 E  0.5 L  0.2 S  Live loads (LL)
• Occupancy load
6 0.9 D  (1.6 Wor 1.0 E ) (L)
• Roof load (Lr)
• Snow load (S)
  0.75  1.00 • Rain loads (R)
• Trucks and
i Rn 
pedestrians
Wind Loads (W)
e.g.  for yield is 0.9 and for bolt shear is 0.75  Earthquakes (E)
68402: Structural Design of Buildings II
61420: Design of Steel Structures
62323: Architectural Structures II

Tension Member Design

Monther Dwaikat
Assistant Professor
Department of Building Engineering
An-Najah National University

68402 Slide # 1
Tension Members
 Applications
 In bridge, roof and floor trusses, bracing systems,
towers, and tie rods
 Consist of angles, channels, tees, plates, W or S
shapes, or combinations

68402 Slide # 3
Typical Tension Members
 Tension chord in a
truss
" Tension" Diagonal

Bottom " Tension" Chord

68402 Slide # 4
Typical Tension Members
 Cables

 Ties " Tension" Tie

68402 Slide # 5
Tension Members
 Commonly Used Sections:
• W/H shapes
• Square and Rectangular or round HSS
• Tees and Double Tees
• Angles and double angles
• Channel sections
• Cables

68402 Slide # 6
Introductory Concepts
 Stress: The stress in the column cross-section can be
calculated as
P
f 
A

f - assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-section.

P - the magnitude of load
A - the cross-sectional area normal to the load
 The stress in a tension member is uniform throughout the
cross-section except:
• near the point of application of load
• at the cross-section with holes for bolts or other discontinuities, etc.

68402 Slide # 7
Design Strength

Average Stress distribution

P
 
A

A A B  B A A BB
Net Area Gross Area

68402 Slide # 8
Introductory Concepts
 For example, consider an 200 x 10 mm. bar connected to a
gusset plate & loaded in tension as shown below in Fig. 2.1

Gusset plate
b Section b-b
b
20 mm
7/8 hole diameter
in. diameter hole

a a
Section a-a
8 x200 x 10
½ in. barmm plate

Fig. 2.1 Example of tension member

68402 Slide # 9
Introductory Concepts
 Area of bar at section a – a = 200 x 10 = 2000 mm2
 Area of bar at section b – b = (200 – 2 x 20 ) x 10 = 1600
mm2
 Therefore, by definition the reduced area of section b – b
will be subjected to higher stresses
 However, the reduced area & therefore the higher stresses
will be localized around section b – b.
 The unreduced area of the member is called its gross area
= Ag
 The reduced area of the member is called its net area = An
68402 Slide # 10
Steel Stress-strain Behavior
 The stress-strain behavior of steel is shown below in
Fig. 2.2 E = 200 GPa
Fy = 248 MPa
Fu

Fy
Stress, f

y u
Strain, 

Fig. 2.2 Stress-strain behavior of steel

68402 Slide # 11
Steel Stress-strain Behavior
 In Fig. 2.2:
• E - the elastic modulus = 200 GPa.

• Fy the yield stress Fu - the ultimate stress

• y is the yield strain u the ultimate strain

• Deformations are caused by the strain . Fig. 2.2 indicates that the
structural deflections will be small as long as the material is elastic
(f < Fy)

• Deformations due to the strain  will be large after the steel

reaches its yield stress Fy.

68402 Slide # 12
Design Strength
 We usually determine the strength “capacity” of any
structural element based on possible scenarios of failure!
 Possible failures of a tension member include
• Yield of the element
• Fracture of element
 The stress of axially loaded elements can be determined
as f  P
A
 The stress is therefore a function of the cross sectional
area thus the presence of holes will change the stress.
 Bolted connections reduce the area of the cross section.
68402 Slide # 13
Design Strength
 A tension member can fail by reaching one of two limit states:
• excessive deformation
• fracture
 Excessive deformation can occur due to the yielding of the
gross section (for example section a-a from Fig. 2.1) along
the length of the member
 Fracture of the net section can occur if the stress at the net
section (for example section b-b in Fig. 2.1) reaches the
ultimate stress Fu.
 The objective of design is to prevent these failure before
reaching the ultimate loads on the structure (Obvious).
 This is also the load & resistance factor design approach for
designing steel structures
68402 Slide # 14
Load & Resistance Factor Design
 The load & resistance factor design approach is
recommended by AISC for designing steel
structures. It can be understood as follows:
• Step I. Determine the ultimate loads acting on the
structure
• The values of D, L, W, etc. are nominal loads (not maximum or
ultimate)
• Duringits design life, a structure can be subjected to some
maximum or ultimate loads caused by combinations of D, L, or
W loading.
• The ultimate load on the structure can be calculated using
factored load combinations. The most relevant of these load
combinations are given below:
68402 Slide # 15
Load & Resistance Factor Design
• 1.4 D
• 1.2 D + 1.6 L + 0.5 (Lr or S)
• 1.2 D + 1.6 (Lr or S) + (0.5 L or 0.8 W)
• 1.2 D + 1.6 W + 0.5 L + 0.5 (Lr or S)
• 0.9 D + 1.6 W
• Step II. Conduct linear elastic structural analysis
• Determine the design forces (Pu, Vu, & Mu) for each structural member

68402 Slide # 16
Load & Resistance Factor Design
• Step III. Design the members
• The failure (design) strength of the designed member must be
greater than the corresponding design forces calculated in Step
II:

 Rn    i Qi
Rn - the calculated failure strength of the member
 - the resistance factor used to account for the reliability of the
material behavior & equations for Rn
Qi - the nominal load
i - the load factor used to account for the variability in loading & to
estimate the ultimate loading

68402 Slide # 17
Design Strength of Tension Members

 Yielding of the gross section will occur when the stress f

reaches Fy.
P
f   Fy
Ag
 Therefore, nominal yield strength = Pn = Ag Fy
 Factored yield strength = t Pn
t = 0.9 for tension yielding limit state

68402 Slide # 18
Design Strength of Tension Members
 Facture of the net section will occur after the stress on the
net section area reaches the ultimate stress Fu
P
f   Fu
Ae
 Therefore, nominal fracture strength = Pn = Ae Fu
 Where, Ae is the effective net area, which may be equal to
the net area or smaller.
 The topic of Ae will be addressed later.
 Factored fracture strength = t Ae Fu
where: t = 0.75 for tension fracture limit state

68402 Slide # 19
 Net Area
 We calculate the net area by deducting the width of the
“bolts + some tolerance around the bolt”

 Use a tolerance of 1.6 mm above the diameter hole

which is typically 1.6 mm larger than the bolt diameter

 Rule
d Hole  dbolt  3.2 mm
b

t
dbolt An  b  (nholes d hole ) t
dhole
68402 Slide # 20
 Design Strength
 Tensile strength of a section is governed by two limit states:
• Yield of gross area (excessive deformation)
• Fracture of net area
 Thus the design strength is one of the following

Load Effect
t Pn  t Fy Ag t  0.9 YIELD
Pu 
t Pn  t Fu An t  0.75 FRACTURE

 The difference in the  factor for the two limit states represent the
• Seriousness of the fracture limit state
• The reliability index (probability of failure) assumed with each limit state
68402 Slide # 21
Important Notes
 Why is fracture (& not yielding) the relevant limit state at
the net section?
Yielding will occur first in the net section. However, the
deformations induced by yielding will be localized around the net
section. These localized deformations will not cause excessive
deformations in the complete tension member. Hence, yielding at
the net section will not be a failure limit state.

 Why is the resistance factor (t) smaller for fracture than

for yielding?
The smaller resistance factor for fracture (t = 0.75 as compared to
t = 0.90 for yielding) reflects the more serious nature &
consequences of reaching the fracture limit state.

68402 Slide # 22
 Important Notes
 What is the design strength of the tension member?
The design strength of the tension member will be the lesser value of
the strength for the two limit states (gross section yielding & net
section fracture).
yp

 Where are the Fy & Fu values for different steel materials?

The yield & ultimate stress values for different steel materials are
dependent on type of steel.

68402 Slide # 23
Ex. 2.1 – Tensile Strength
 A 125 x 10 mm bar of A572 (Fy = 344 MPa) steel is used as a tension
member. It is connected to a gusset plate with six 20 mm. diameter
bolts as shown below. Assume that the effective net area Ae equals
the actual net area An & compute the tensile design strength of the
member.

Gusset plate

b b
20 in.
7/8 mmdiameter
hole diameter
bolt

a a

5 200
x ½ in.
x 10barmm plate
A572(Fy
A572 Gr. =50344 MPa)

68402 Slide # 24
Ex. 2.1 – Tensile Strength
 Gross section area = Ag = 125 x 10 = 1250 mm2

 Net section area (An)

• Bolt diameter = db = 20 mm.
• Nominal hole diameter = dh = 20 + 1.6 = 21.6 mm
• Hole diameter for calculating net area = 21.6 + 1.6 = 23.2 mm
• Net section area = An = (125 – 2 x (23.2)) x 10 = 786 mm2

 Gross yielding design strength = t Pn = t Fy Ag

• Gross yielding design strength = 0.9 x 344 x 1250/1000 = 387 kN

68402 Slide # 25
Ex. 2.1 – Tensile Strength
 Fracture design strength = t Pn = t Fu Ae
• Assume Ae = An (only for this problem)
• Fracture design strength = 0.75 x 448 x 786/1000 = 264 kN

 Design strength of the member in tension = smaller of

264 kN & 387 kN
• Therefore, design strength = 264 kN (net section fracture
controls).

68402 Slide # 26
Effective Net Area
 The connection has a significant influence on the
performance of a tension member. A connection almost
always weakens the member & a measure of its influence
is called joint efficiency.

 Joint efficiency is a function of:

• material ductility
• fastener spacing
• stress concentration at holes
• fabrication procedure
• shear lag.

 All factors contribute to reducing the effectiveness but

shear lag is the most important.
68402 Slide # 27
Effective Net Area
 Shear lag occurs when the tension force is not transferred
simultaneously to all elements of the cross-section. This
will occur when some elements of the cross-section are
not connected.
 For example, see the figure below, where only one leg of
an angle is bolted to the gusset plate.

68402 Slide # 28
Effective Net Area
 A consequence of this partial connection is that the
connected element becomes overloaded & the
unconnected part is not fully stressed.

 Lengthening the connection region will reduce this effect

 Research indicates that shear lag can be accounted for by

using a reduced or effective net area Ae

 Shear lag affects both bolted & welded connections.

Therefore, the effective net area concept applied to both
types of connections.
• For bolted connection, the effective net area is Ae = U An
• For welded connection, the effective net area is Ae = U Ag
68402 Slide # 29
 Effective Net Area
 The way the tension member is connected affects its efficiency
because of the “Shear Lag” phenomenon
 Shear lag occurs when the force is transmitted to the section
through part of the section (not the whole section)
 To account for this stress concentration in stress, an area
reduction factor “U” is used
Bolted Connections Ae  U An
Welded Connections Ae  U Ag

x Over stressed

Under stressed

68402 Slide # 30
Effective Net Area
 Where, the reduction factor U is given by:
x
U = 1- ≤ 0.9 (4.7)
L
x- the distance from the centroid of the connected area to the plane of
the connection
L - the length of the connection.

• If the member has two symmetrically located planes of connection,

is measured from the centroid of the nearest one – half of the area.

68402 Slide # 31
Effective Net Area

L
L
Bolted Connections Welded Connections

 Increasing the connection length reduces the shear lag effect

 Some special cases govern bolted and welded connections

68402 Slide # 32
Effective Net Area
 The distance L is defined as the length of the connection in
the direction of load.
• For bolted connections, L is measured from the center of the bolt at
one end to the center of the bolt at the other end.

• For welded connections, it is measured from one end of the

connection to other.

• If there are weld segments of different length in the direction of

load, L is the length of the longest segment.

68402 Slide # 33
 U for Bolted Connections
x
U  1   0.9 OR
L
 Two major groups of bolted connections
• Connections with at least three bolts per line bf2
• W,M and S shapes and T cut from them connected in flange with 
d 3
U  0.9
• All other shapes

U  0.85
• Connections with only two bolts per line

U  0.75

68402 Slide # 34
Ex. 2.2 – Design Strength
 Determine the effective net area & the corresponding
design strength for the single angle tension member in the
figure below. The tension member is an L 4 x 4 x 3/8 made
from A36 steel. It is connected to a gusset plate with 15
mm diameter bolts, as shown in Figure below. The spacing
between the bolts is 75 mm center-to-center.

a
x

L 4L x44xx43/x83/8
d bd= 5/8
= 15in.mm
b

a L 4 x 4 x 3/ 8
Gusset plate
68402 Slide # 35
Ex. 2.2 – Design Strength
• Gross area of angle = Ag = 1850 mm2 T = 9.5 mm

• Net section area = An

• Bolt diameter = 15 mm.
• Hole diameter for calculating net area = 15 +3.2 = 18.2 mm.
• Net section area = Ag – 18.2 x 9.5 = 1850 –172.9 = 1677.1 mm2
• x is the distance from the centroid of the area connected to
the plane of connection
• For this case is equal to the distance of centroid of the angle
from the edge.
• This value is given in the section property table.

•x = 28.7 mm.

68402 Slide # 36
Ex. 2.2 – Design Strength
• L is the length of the connection, which for this case will be
equal to 2 x 75 = 150 mm.
x 28.7
• U  1  1
L 150
 0.809

• Effective net area = Ae = 0.809 x 1677.1 in2 = 1357 mm2

• Gross yielding design strength = t Ag Fy = 0.9 x 1850 x

248/1000 = 412.9 kN

• Net section fracture = t Ae Fu = 0.75 x 1357 x 400/1000 = 407.1

kN

• Design strength = 407.1 kN (net section fracture governs)

• (Lower of the two values)

68402 Slide # 37
Ex. 2.3 – Design Strength
 Determine the design strength of an ASTM A992 W8 x 24 with
four lines if 20 mm diameter bolts in standard holes, two per
flange, as shown in the Figure below. Assume the holes are
located at the member end & the connection length is 225 mm.
Also calculate at what length this tension member would cease
to satisfy the slenderness limitation in LRFD specification.
dbdiameter
¾ in. = 20 mm bolts

W 8 x 24

753mm
in. 753 mm
in. 753 mm
in.

Holes in beam flange

68402 Slide # 38
Ex. 2.3 – Design Strength
• For ASTM A992 material: Fy = 344 MPa; & Fu = 448 MPa

• For the W8 x 24 section:

• Ag = 4570 mm2 d = 201 mm.
• tw = 6.2 mm. bf = 165 mm.
• tf = 10.2 mm. ry = 40.9 mm.

• Gross yielding design strength = t Pn = t Ag Fy = 0.90 x 4570 x

344/1000 = 1414.9 kN

• Net section fracture strength = t Pn = t Ae Fu = 0.75 x Ae x 448

• Ae = U An - for bolted connection
• An = Ag – (no. of holes) x (diameter of hole) x (thickness of flange)
• An = 4570 – 4 x (20+3.2) x 10.2.
• An = 3623 mm2
68402 Slide # 39
Ex. 2.3 – Design Strength
x
• U  1   0.9
L
• What is x for this situation?
• x is the distance from the edge of the flange to the centroid of
the half (T) section
tf d  2t f d  2 tf
(b f  t f )  (  tw )  ( )
x 2 2 4
• d  2t f
bf  t f   tw
2
 201  2 10.2   201  2 10.2 
165 10.2  5.1     6.2   
x  2   4   17.6 mm.
•  201  2  10.2 
165  10.2     6.2
 2 

68402 Slide # 40
Special Cases for Welded Connections
 If some elements of the cross-section are not connected,
then Ae will be less than An
 For a rectangular bar or plate Ae will be equal to An
 However, if the connection is by longitudinal welds at the
ends as shown in the figure below, then Ae = UAg
 Where, U = 1.0 for L ≥ 2w
U = 0.87 for 1.5 w ≤ L < 2 w
U = 0.75 for w ≤ L < 1.5 w
 L = length of the pair of welds ≥ w

 w = distance between the welds or width of plate/bar

68402 Slide # 41
Ex. 2.3 – Design Strength
• The calculated value is not accurate due to the deviations
in the geometry
x 17.6
• U  1  1
L 225
 0.922

• But, U ≤ 0.90. Therefore, assume U = 0.90

68402 Slide # 42
Ex. 2.3 – Design Strength
• Net section fracture strength = t Ae Fu = 0.75 x 0.9 x 3623 x
448/1000 = 1095.6 kN

• The design strength of the member is controlled by net section

fracture = 1095.6 kN

• According to LRFD specification, the maximum unsupported

length of the member is limited to 300 ry = 300 x 40.9 = 12270
mm = 12.27 m.

68402 Slide # 43
Special Cases for Welded Connections

68402 Slide # 44
Special Cases for Welded Connections
 For any member connected by transverse welds alone,
Ae = area of the connected element of the cross-section

68402 Slide # 45
 U for Welded Connections
x
U  1   0. 9 OR
L
 Two major groups of welded connections
• General case bf 2
• W,M and S shapes and T cut from them connected in flange with 
d 3
U  0 .9
• All other shapes
U  0.85
• Special case for plates welded at their ends
W
L  2W KKKKKK U  1.0
1.5W  L  2W KKKU  0.87 L
W  L  1.5W KKK U  0.75
• Any member with transverse welds all around ONLY U  1 .0
68402 Slide # 46
Ex. 2.4 – Tension Design Strength
 Consider the welded single angle L 6x 6 x ½ tension
member made from A36 steel shown below. Calculate
the tension design strength.
42.4 mm

140 mm

68402 Slide # 47
Ex. 2.4 – Tension Design Strength
• Ag = 3720 mm2

• An = 3720 mm2 - because it is a welded connection

• Ae = U An

• x = 42.4 mm for this welded connection

• L = 152 mm for this welded connection
x 42.4
• U  1  L  1  152  0.72
• Gross yielding design strength = t Fy Ag = 0.9 x 248 x
3720/1000 = 830 kN

• Net section fracture strength = t Fu Ae = 0.75 x 400 x 0.72 x

3720/1000 = 803 kN

• Design strength = 803 kN (net section fracture governs)

68402 Slide # 48
Design of Tension Members
 The design of a tension member involves finding the
lightest steel section (angle, wide-flange, or channel
section) with design strength (Pn) greater than or equal
to the maximum factored design tension load (Pu) acting
on it.
•  Pn ≥ Pu
• Pu is determined by structural analysis for factored load
combinations
•  Pn is the design strength based on the gross section yielding,
net section fracture & block shear rupture limit states.

68402 Slide # 49
Design of Tension Members
 For net section fracture limit state, Pn = 0.75 x Ae x Fu
• Therefore, 0.75 x Ae x Fu ≥ Pu
Pu
• Therefore, Ae ≥
0.75  Fu
• But, Ae = U An
• U & An - depend on the end connection.

 Thus, designing the tension member goes hand-in-hand

with designing the end connection, which we have not
covered so far.

68402 Slide # 50
Design of Tension Members
 Therefore, for this chapter of the course, the end
connection details will be given in the examples &
problems.

 The AISC manual tabulates the tension design strength of

standard steel sections
• Include: wide flange shapes, angles, tee sections, & double angle
sections.
• The gross yielding design strength & the net section fracture
strength of each section is tabulated.
• This provides a great starting point for selecting a section.

68402 Slide # 51
Design of Tension Members
 There is one serious limitation
• The net section fracture strength is tabulated for an assumed value
of U = 0.75, obviously because the precise connection details are
not known
• For all W, Tee, angle & double-angle sections, Ae is assumed to be
= 0.75 Ag
• The engineer can first select the tension member based on the
tabulated gross yielding & net section fracture strengths, & then
check the net section fracture strength & the block shear strength
using the actual connection details.

68402 Slide # 52
Design of Tension Members
 Additionally for each shape, the code tells the
value of Ae below which net section fracture will
control:
• Thus, for Grade 50 steel sections, net section fracture
will control if Ae < 0.923 Ag
• For Grade 36 steel sections, net section fracture will
control if Ae < 0.745 Ag

 Slenderness limits
• Tension member slenderness l/r must preferably be
limited to 300 as per LRFD specifications.
68402 Slide # 53
Slenderness Requirements
 Although tension elements are not likely to buckle, it is
recommended to limit their slenderness ratio to 300
L
max   300
rmin
I min
rmin 
A

 The slenderness limitation of tension members is not for

structural integrity as for compression members.
 The reason for the code limitation is to assure that the member
has enough stiffness to prevent lateral movement or vibration.
 This limitation does not apply to tension rods and cables.
68402 Slide # 54
Steps for Design of Tension Members
 Steps for design
• Calculate the load
• Decide whether your connection will be welded or bolted
• Assume U factor of 0.75
• Determine the gross area of the element
• Assume An = 0.75 Ag

 Pu
Ag  
 0.9 Fy
 Pu Pu
Ag   for bolted for welded
 0.45 Fu 0.45 Fu

68402 Slide # 55
Steps for Design of Tension Members
 Steps for design
• Choose the lightest section with area little larger than Ag
• Calculate, Ag, An, U and Ae for the chosen section

0.9 Ag Fy
• Check Pu  
0.75 Ae FU
• Check slenderness ratio

L
max   300
rmin

68402 Slide # 56
Ex. 2.7 – Design of Tension Members
 Design a member to carry a factored maximum tension load of 350 kN.
 Assume that the member is a wide flange connected through the
flanges using eight 20 mm diameter bolts in two rows of four each as
shown in the figure below. The center-to-center distance of the bolts in
the direction of loading is 100 mm. The edge distances are 40 & 50
mm as shown in the figure below. Steel material is A992

20¾
mmin. d iameter bolts
50 mm
2 in. 100 mm
4 in.

401.5
mm in.

W 40
1.5mm
in.

50 2
mmin. 4 in.
100 mm Fy = 344 MPa
Holes in beam flange Fu = 448 MPa
68402 Slide # 57
Ex. 2.7 – Design of Tension Members
• Select a section from the Tables
• Ag ≥ 350*1000/(0.9*344) = 1130 mm2.
• Assume U=0.75
• Ag  350*1000/(0.45*448)=1736 mm2
• Try W8x10 with Ag = 1910 mm2.
• An = 1910 – 4*(23.2*5.2) = 1427 mm2.
• x = 24.6 mm (students have to compute it)
• U = 1 – 24.6/100 = 0.754
• Gross yielding strength = 591 kN, & net section fracture
strength = 362 kN

68402 Slide # 58
Extra Slides

68402 Slide # 59
Block Shear
 For some connection configurations, the tension member
can fail due to ‘tear-out’ of material at the connected end.
This is called block shear.
 For example, the single angle tension member connected
as shown in the Fig. 2.3 below is susceptible to the
phenomenon of block shear.
 For the case shown above, shear failure will occur along
the longitudinal section a-b & tension failure will occur
along the transverse section b-c.
 AISC Specification on tension members does not cover
block shear failure explicitly. But, it directs the engineer to
the Specification on connections
68402 Slide # 60
Block Shear
(a)

(b)

Fig. 2.3 Block

Shear failure shear failure of
(c) single angle
tension member
Tension failure

68402 Slide # 61
Block Shear
 Block shear strength is determined as the sum of the
shear strength on a failure path & the tensile strength on a
perpendicular segment.
• Block shear strength = net section fracture strength on shear path
+ net section fracture strength of the tension path
• OR
• Block shear strength = gross yielding strength of the shear path +
net section fracture strength of the tension path

 Which of the two calculations above governs?

68402 Slide # 62
Block Shear
 Rn =  (0.6 Fu Anv + UbsFu Ant) ≤  (0.6 FyAgv + UbsFu Ant)

 = 0.75
Ubs = 1.0 for uniform tensile stress; = 0.5 for nonuniform tensile stress
Agv - gross area subject to shear
Agt - gross area subject to tension
Anv - net area subject to shear
Ant - net area subject to tension
Fu - ultiamte strength of steel
Fy - yield strength of steel

68402 Slide # 63
Block Shear
 Failure happens by a
combination of shear
and tension.

Area failing by shear Area failing by tension

Shear Tension Shear Yield Tension

Fracture Fracture Fracture

Failure Mode 1 Failure Mode 2

 The two possible failure modes shall be investigated

68402 Slide # 64
Ex. 2.5 – Block Shear
 Calculate the block shear strength of the single angle tension
member shown bellow. The single angle L 4 x 4 x 3/8 made
from A36 steel is connected to the gusset plate with 15 mm
diameter bolts as shown below. The bolt spacing is 75 mm
center-to-center & the edge distances are 40 mm & 50 mm as
shown in the Figure below.

a
x

L 4 x 4 x 3/ 8
dd
b ==5/8
15in.
mm
b

a L 4 x 4 x 3/ 8
Gusset plate
68402 Slide # 65
Ex. 2.5 – Block Shear
• Assume a block shear path & calculate the required areas

.0
250 d b d= 5/8 in.
b = 15 mm
.0
375
.5
140 3 .0
75
a
Gusset plate

68402 Slide # 66
Ex. 2.5 – Block Shear
• Agt = gross tension area = 50 x 9.5 = 475 mm2
• Ant = net tension area = 475 - 0.5 x (15 + 3.2) x 9.5 = 388.5
mm2
• Agv = gross shear area = (75 + 75 +40) x 9.5 = 1805 mm2
• Anv = net shear area = 1805 - 2.5 x (15 + 3.2) x 9.5 = 1372.8
mm2
• Ubs = 1.0

• Calculate block shear strength

• t Rn = 0.75 (0.6 Fu Anv + UbsFu Ant)
• t Rn = 0.75 (0.6 x 400 x 1372.8 + 1.0 x 400 x 388.5)/1000 =
363.7 kN

68402 Slide # 67
Ex. 2.5 – Block Shear
• Check upper limit
• t Rn ≤  (0.6 FyAgv + UbsFu Ant)
• t Rn ≤ 0.75 (0.6 x 248 x 1805 + 1.0 x 400 x 388.5)/1000
• t Rn ≤ 318 kN
• Block shear strength = 318 kN

68402 Slide # 68
Ex. 2.6 – Design Tensile Strength
 Determine the design tension strength for a single
channel C15 x 50 connected to a 15 mm thick gusset
plate as shown in Figure. Assume that the holes are for
20 mm diameter bolts. Also, assume structural steel with
yield stress (Fy) equal to 344 MPa & ultimate stress (Fu)
equal to 448 MPa. gusset plate

3 @ 75 mm = 225 T
T mm center-to-
center

C15 x 50

40 75 75

68402 Slide # 69
Ex. 2.6 – Design Tensile Strength
• Limit state of yielding due to tension:
Tn  0.9*344*9480 /1000  2935 kN
• Limit state of fracture due to tension:
An  Ag  nd et  9480  4 18.2  23.2   7791 mm 2

 x  20.3 
Ae  UAn   1   An   1   *7791  6736.6 mm 2

 L   150 
• Check: U  0.867  0.9 OK.

• Note: The connection eccentricity, x, for a C15X50 can be found

in section property tables.

Tn  0.75* 448*6736.6 /1000  2263.5 kN

68402 Slide # 70
Ex. 2.6 – Design Tensile Strength
• Limit state of block shear rupture:
• Agt = gross tension area = 225 x 18.2 = 4095 mm2
• Ant = net tension area = (225 - 3*(23.2))*18.2 = 2828 mm2
• Agv = gross shear area = 2*(190*18.2) = 6916 mm2
• Anv = net shear area = 2*((190 - 2.5*23.2) *18.2) = 4805 mm2
• Ubs = 1.0
• Calculate block shear strength
• t Rn = 0.75 (0.6 Fu Anv + UbsFu Ant)
• t Rn = 0.75 (0.6 x 448 x 4805 + 1.0 x 448 x 2828)/1000 = 1919
kN

68402 Slide # 71
Ex. 2.6 – Design Tensile Strength
• Check upper limit
• t Rn ≤  (0.6 FyAgv + UbsFu Ant)
• t Rn ≤ 0.75 (0.6 x 344 x 6916 + 1.0 x 448 x 2828)
• t Rn ≤ 2021 kN
• Block shear strength = 1919 kN

• Block shear rupture is the critical limit state & the design
tension strength is 1919 kN.

68402 Slide # 72
Staggered Bolts

68402 Slide # 73
Staggered Bolts
 For a bolted tension member, the connecting bolts can be
staggered for several reasons:
• To get more capacity by increasing the effective net area
• To achieve a smaller connection length
• To fit the geometry of the tension connection itself.

 For a tension member with staggered bolt holes (see example

figure above), the relationship f = P/A does not apply & the
stresses are a combination of tensile & shearing stresses on
the inclined portion b-c.
 Net section fracture can occur along any zig-zag or straight
line. For ex., fracture can occur along the inclined path a-b-c-d
in the figure above. However, all possibilities must be
examined.
68402 Slide # 74
Staggered Bolts
 Empirical methods have been developed to calculate the net
section fracture strength.
s2
• net width = gross width -  d  
4g
d - the diameter of hole to be deducted (db + 3.2 mm)
s2/4g - added for each gage space in the chain being considered
s - the longitudinal spacing (pitch) of the bolt holes in the direction of loading

g - the transverse spacing (gage) of the bolt holes perpendicular to loading

direction.
net area (An) = net width x plate thickness
x
effective net area (Ae) = U An where U  1 
net fracture design strength = t Ae Fu (t = 0.75) L
68402 Slide # 75
Staggered Bolted Connections
BB A A

S
 Stresses on inclined planes are a mix of tension and shear
and thus a correction is needed.
S2
Wn  Wg   d   An  Wn t
4g
 All possible failure paths passes shall be examined. The path
that yields the smallest area governs.
68402 Slide # 76
68402: Structural Design of Buildings II
61420: Design of Steel Structures
62323: Architectural Structures II

Design of Compression Members

Monther Dwaikat
Assistant Professor
Department of Building Engineering
An-Najah National University

68402 Slide # 1
Design of Compression
Members
 Short and long columns

 Buckling load and buckling failure modes

 Elastic and Inelastic buckling

 Local buckling

 Design of Compression Members

 Effective Length for Rigid Frames

 Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling

 Design of Singly Symmetric Cross Sections

68402 Slide # 2
Axially Loaded Compression Members

 Columns
 Struts

 Top chords of trusses

 Diagonal members of trusses

Column and Compression member are often used

interchangeably

68402 Slide # 3
Axially Loaded Compression Members

 Commonly Used Sections:

• W/H shapes
• Square and Rectangular or round HSS
• Tees and Double Tees
• Angles and double angles
• Channel sections

68402 Slide # 4
Columns
 Failure modes (limit states):
• Crushing (for short column)
• Flexural or Euler Buckling (unstable under bending)
• Local Buckling (thin local cross section)

68402 Slide # 5
Short Columns
 Compression Members: Structural elements that are
subjected to axial compressive forces only are called
columns. Columns are subjected to axial loads thru the
centroid.
 Stress: The stress in the column cross-section can be
calculated as
P
f 
A
f - assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-section.

Short columns - crushing

68402 Slide # 6
Long Columns
 This ideal state is never reached. The stress-state will be
non-uniform due to:
• Accidental eccentricity of loading with respect to the centroid
• Member out-of –straightness (crookedness), or
• Residual stresses in the member cross-section due to fabrication
processes.
 Accidental eccentricity and member out-of-straightness
can cause bending moments in the member. However,
these are secondary and are usually ignored.
 Bending moments cannot be neglected if they are acting
on the member. Members with axial compression and
bending moment are called beam-columns.
 “Long” columns
68402 Slide # 7
 Long Columns
 The larger the slenderness ratio (L/r), the greater the
tendency to buckle under smaller load
 Factors affecting tendency to buckle:
• end conditions
• unknown eccentricity (concentric & eccentric loads)
• imperfections in material
• initial crookedness
• out of plumbness
• residual stress
• buckling can be on one or both axes (major or minor axis)

68402 Slide # 8
 Column Buckling
 Consider a long slender P
(a) Pcr (b)

compression member. If
an axial load P is applied
and increased slowly, it
will ultimately reach a
value Pcr that will cause
buckling of the column.
Pcr is called the critical
buckling load of the
column.
P
Pcr

Figure 1. Buckling of axially loaded compression members

68402 Slide # 9
 Buckling Load
• Now assume we have a pin connected column. If we apply a similar
concept to that before here we find
Pcr Pcr • The internal resisting moment M in the column
is M   P
• We can write the relationship between the
deflected shape and the Moment M

d 2 M  P cr 
M 2
 
dx EI EI
d 2 Pcr   2 EI
2
  0 Pcr 
dx EI L2
Pcr - The load at which bucking starts to happen
(Critical buckling load)
P P
 
x x 68402 Slide # 10
Column Buckling
 What is buckling?
Buckling occurs when a straight column subjected
to axial compression suddenly undergoes bending
as shown in the Figure 1(b). Buckling is identified as
a failure limit-state for columns.
• The critical buckling load Pcr for columns is theoretically given by
Equation (3.1):
 2E I
• Pcr  [3.1]
K L 2

I - moment of inertia about axis of buckling.

K - effective length factor based on end boundary conditions.

68402 Slide # 11
Effective Length

KL- Distance between inflection points in column.

K- Effective length factor
L- Column unsupported length

KL=0.7L L
KL=L KL=0.5L L

K = 1.0 K = 0.5 K = 0.7

68402 Slide # 12
Column Buckling
Table C-C2.2
Approximate Values of Effective Length Factor, K

Boundary
conditions

68402 Slide # 13
Ex. 3.1- Buckling Loads
 Determine the buckling strength
of a W 12 x 50 column. Its x

length is 6 m. For minor axis

buckling, it is pinned at both y

ends. For major buckling, is it

pinned at one end and fixed at
the other end.

68402 Slide # 14
Ex. 3.1- Buckling Loads
Step I. Visualize the problem
• For the W12 x 50 (or any wide flange section), x is the major
axis and y is the minor axis. Major axis means axis about which
it has greater moment of inertia (Ix > Iy).

Step II. Determine the effective lengths

• According to Table C-C2.2:
• For pin-pin end conditions about the minor axis
• Ky = 1.0 (theoretical value); and Ky = 1.0 (recommended design
value)
• For pin-fix end conditions about the major axis
• Kx = 0.7 (theoretical value); and Kx = 0.8 (recommended design
value).
• According to the problem statement, the unsupported length for
buckling about the major (x) axis = Lx = 6 m.

68402 Slide # 15
Ex. 3.1- Buckling Loads
• The unsupported length for buckling about the minor (y) axis = Ly =
6 m.
• Effective length for major (x) axis buckling = Kx Lx = 0.8 x 6 = 4.8 m.
• Effective length for minor (y) axis buckling = Ky Ly = 1.0 x 6 = 6 m.

Step III. Determine the relevant section properties

• Elastic modulus of elasticity = E = 200 GPa (constant for all steels)
• For W12 x 50: Ix = 163x106 mm4. Iy = 23x106 mm4

68402 Slide # 16
Ex. 3.1- Buckling Loads
Step IV. Calculate the buckling strength

 2E I x
• Critical load for buckling about x - axis = Pcr-x =
K x Lx 2
 2  200 163 106
Pcr-x = = 13965 kN.
 4800 
2

2 E I y
Critical load for buckling about y-axis = Pcr-y =
 2  200  23 106
K y L y 2
Pcr-y = = 1261 kN.
 6000 
2

Buckling strength of the column = smaller (Pcr-x, Pcr-y) = Pcr = 1261 kN.
Minor (y) axis buckling governs.

68402 Slide # 17
Ex. 3.1- Buckling Loads
Notes:
• Minor axis buckling usually governs for all doubly
symmetric cross-sections. However, for some cases,
major (x) axis buckling can govern.
• Note that the steel yield stress was irrelevant for
calculating this buckling strength.

68402 Slide # 18
Inelastic Column Buckling
 Let us consider the previous example. According to our
calculations Pcr = 1261 kN. This Pcr will cause a uniform
stress f = Pcr/A in the cross-section.
 For W12 x 50, A = 9420 mm2. Therefore, for Pcr = 1261
kN; f = 133.9 MPa.
 The calculated value of f is within the elastic range for a
344 MPa yield stress material.
 However, if the unsupported length was only 3 m, Pcr
=would be calculated as 5044 kN, and f = 535.5 MPa.
 This value of f is ridiculous because the material will
yield at 344 MPa and never develop f = 535.5 kN. The
member would yield before buckling.
68402 Slide # 19
Inelastic Column Buckling
 Eq. (3.1) is valid only when the material everywhere in the cross-
section is in the elastic region. If the material goes inelastic then
Eq. (3.1) becomes useless and cannot be used.
 What happens in the inelastic range?
 Several other problems appear in the inelastic range.
• The member out-of-straightness has a significant influence on the buckling
strength in the inelastic region. It must be accounted for.
• The residual stresses in the member due to the fabrication process
causes yielding in the cross-section much before the uniform stress f
reaches the yield stress Fy.
• The shape of the cross-section (W, C, etc.) also influences the buckling
strength.
• In the inelastic range, the steel material can undergo strain hardening.
 All of these are very advanced concepts and beyond the scope of this
course.
68402 Slide # 20
AISC Specifications for Column Strength
 The AISC specifications for column design are based on
several years of research.
 These specifications account for the elastic and inelastic
buckling of columns including all issues (member
crookedness, residual stresses, accidental eccentricity
etc.) mentioned above.
 The specification presented here will work for all doubly
symmetric cross-sections.
 The design strength of columns for the flexural buckling
limit state is equal to cPn
 Where, c = 0.9 (Resistance factor for
compression members)

68402 Slide # 21
 Inelastic Buckling of Columns
• Elastic buckling assumes the material to follow Hooke’s law and thus
assumes stresses below elastic (proportional) limit.
• If the stress in the column reaches the proportional limit then Euler’s
assumptions are violated.
Stress “F” Elastic Buckling
(Long Columns)

F  FP
Proportional
limit
Euler assumptions
 2E
Fcr 
( L / r )2

Inelastic Buckling
(Short columns) L/r
68402 Slide # 22
 AISC Specifications for Column
Strength
Pu   Pn
Pn = Ag Fcr [E3-1]
 2E [E3-4]
Fe 
KL r 2
 F y Fe 
  0 . 658  Fy K KL r  4 . 71 E Fy Inelastic [E3-2]
F cr   
 0 . 877 F e K KL r  4 . 71 E Fy Elastic [E3-3]

Fe- Elastic critical Euler buckling load
Ag - gross member area
K - effective length factor
L - unbraced length of the member
r - governing radius of gyration
The 0.877 factor in Eq (E3-3) tries to account for initial crookedness.
68402 Slide # 23
AISC Specifications For Column
Strength

1.0
F 
= 
Fcrcr  00.6582 F y Fe 
.658c Fy  Fy

Fcr/Fy Elastic Buckling
(Long columns)
 0.877 
0.39 FF =  02.877
cr cr  F
Fye
  c 
Inelastic Buckling
(Short columns)

K L Fy4.711.5E KL
c =
r E Fy r
68402 Slide # 24
AISC Specifications For Column
Strength

 For a given column section:

• Calculate I, Ag, r
• Determine effective length K L based on end boundary conditions.
• Calculate KL/r
E
• If KL/r is greater than 4.71 , elastic buckling occurs and use
Equation (E3.4) Fy
E
• If KL/r is less than or equal to 4.71 , inelastic buckling
occurs and use Eq. (E3.3) Fy
 Note that the column can develop its yield strength Fy as
KL/r approaches zero.

68402 Slide # 25
Ex. 3.2 - Column Strength
 Calculate the design strength of W14 x 74 with length of 6
m and pinned ends. A36 steel is used.

• Step I. Calculate the effective length and slenderness ratio for the
problem
Kx = Ky = 1.0
Lx = Ly = 6 m
Major axis slenderness ratio = KxLx/rx = 6000/153.4 = 39.1
Minor axis slenderness ratio = KyLy/ry = 6000/63 = 95.2

• Step II. Calculate the buckling strength for governing slenderness

ratio
The governing slenderness ratio is the larger of (KxLx/rx, KyLy/ry)
68402 Slide # 26
Ex. 3.2 - Column Strength
• KyLy/ry is larger and the governing slenderness ratio;
E 200000
K y Ly / ry  4.71  4.71  133.7
Fy 248

 2E 3.14162  200000
• Fe    217.8 MPa
K L / ry 
2 2
95.2
y y

• Therefore, Fcr  0.658 Fy Fe

F
y  154 MPa
• Design column strength = cPn = 0.9 (Ag Fcr) = 0.9 (14060x154)/1000=
1948.7 kN.
• Design strength of column = 1948.7 kN.

68402 Slide # 27
 Local Buckling Limit State
 The AISC
specifications for
column strength
assume that column
buckling is the
governing limit state.
However, if the
column section is
made of thin (slender)
plate elements, then
failure can occur due
to local buckling of Figure 4. Local buckling of columns
the flanges or the
webs. 68402 Slide # 28
Local Buckling Limit State
• Local buckling is another limitation
that represents the instability of the
cross section itself.

• If local buckling occurs, the full

strength of the cross section can
not be developed.

68402 Slide # 29
Local Buckling Limit State
 If local buckling of the individual plate elements occurs, then
the column may not be able to develop its buckling strength.
 Therefore, the local buckling limit state must be prevented
from controlling the column strength.
 Local buckling depends on the slenderness (width-to-
thickness b/t ratio) of the plate element and the yield stress
(Fy) of the material.
 Each plate element must be stocky enough, i.e., have a b/t
ratio that prevents local buckling from governing the column
strength.
 The AISC specification provides the slenderness (b/t) limits
that the individual plate elements must satisfy so that local
buckling does not control.
68402 Slide # 30
 Local Buckling Limit State
• Local buckling can be prevented by limiting the width to thickness ratio
known as “” to an upper limit r
b
b
b E
  0.56 tf
tf
tf Fy
h
tw

h E
   1.49
tw Fy

68402 Slide # 31
Local Buckling Limit State
 The AISC specification provides two slenderness limits (p
and r) for the local buckling of plate elements.

Compact
Fy
Axial Force, F

Non-Compact

Slender

F b

Axial shortening, 

68402 Slide # 32
Local Buckling Limit State
• If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is greater than r
then it is slender. It will locally buckle in the elastic range before
reaching Fy
• If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is less than r but
greater than p, then it is non-compact. It will locally buckle
immediately after reaching Fy
• If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is less than p,
then the element is compact. It will locally buckle much after
reaching Fy
 If all the plate elements of a cross-section are compact,
then the section is compact.
• If any one plate element is non-compact, then the cross-section is
non-compact
• If any one plate element is slender, then the cross-section is
slender.
68402 Slide # 33
Local Buckling Limit State
• Cross section can be classified as “compact”, “non compact” or
“slender” sections based on their width to thickness ratios
• If the cross-section does not satisfy local buckling requirements its
critical buckling stress Fcr shall be reduced
• If   r then the section is slender, a reduction factor for capacity
shall be computed from

AISC Manual for Steel

Design

• It is not recommended to use slender sections for columns.

68402 Slide # 34
Local Buckling Limit State
 The slenderness limits p and r for various plate elements with
different boundary conditions are given in the AISC Manual.
 Note that the slenderness limits (p and r) and the definition of plate
slenderness (b/t) ratio depend upon the boundary conditions for the
plate.
• If the plate is supported along two edges parallel to the direction of
compression force, then it is a stiffened element. For example, the webs of
W shapes
• If the plate is supported along only one edge parallel to the direction of the
compression force, then it is an unstiffened element. Ex., the flanges of W
shapes.
 The local buckling limit state can be prevented from controlling the
column strength by using sections that are compact and non-compact.
 Avoid slender sections

68402 Slide # 35
Local Buckling Limit State

68402 Slide # 36
Ex. 3.3 – Local Buckling
 Determine the local buckling slenderness limits and
evaluate the W14 x 74 section used in Example 3.2. Does
local buckling limit the column strength?
• Step I. Calculate the slenderness limits
See Tables in previous slide.
For the flanges of I-shape sections in pure compression

E 200000
r  0.56   0.56   15.9
Fy 248
For the webs of I-shapes section in pure compression
E 200000
r  1.49   1.49   42.3
Fy 248

Use E = 200000 MPa

68402 Slide # 37
Ex. 3.3 – Local Buckling
• Step II. Calculate the slenderness ratios for the flanges and webs
of W14 x 74
• For the flanges of I-shape member, b = bf/2 = flange width / 2
Therefore, b/t = bf/2tf.
For W 14 x 74, bf/2tf = 6.41 (See Section Property Table)
• For the webs of I shaped member, b = h
h is the clear distance between flanges less the fillet / corner radius of
each flange
For W14 x 74, h/tw = 25.4 (See Section Property Table).

• Step III. Make the comparisons and comment

For the flanges, b/t < r. Therefore, the flange is non-compact
For the webs, h/tw < r. Therefore the web is non-compact
Therefore, the section is non-compact
Therefore, local buckling will not limit the column strength.
68402 Slide # 38
 Design of Compression Members
• Steps for design of compression members
• Calculate the factored loads Pu
• Assume (a cross section) or (KL/r ratio between 50 to 90)
• Calculate the slenderness ratio KL/r and the ratio Fe F   2 E
e
• Calculate c Fcr based on value of Fe  KL r 2

Pu
• Calculate the Area required Ag Arequired 
 c Fcr

• Choose a cross section and get (KxL/rx )and (KyL/ry) (KL/r) max

• Recalculate c Fcr and thus check c Pn  Ag c Fcr  Pu

• Check local buckling requirements
68402 Slide # 39
Ex. 3.4 – Design Strength
 Determine the design strength of an ASTM A992 W14 x
132 that is part of a braced frame. Assume that the
physical length L = 9 m, the ends are pinned and the
column is braced at the ends only for the X-X axis and
braced at the ends and mid-height for the Y-Y axis.

• Step I. Calculate the effective lengths.

From Section Property Table
For W14 x 132: rx = 159.5 mm; ry = 95.5 mm; Ag =25030 mm2
Kx = 1.0 and Ky = 1.0
Lx = 9 m and Ly = 4.5 m
KxLx = 9 m and KyLy = 4.5 m

68402 Slide # 40
Ex. 3.4 – Design Strength
• Step II. Determine the governing slenderness ratio
KxLx/rx = 9000/159.5 = 56.4
KyLy/ry = 4500/95.5 = 47.1
The larger slenderness ratio, therefore, buckling about the major
axis will govern the column strength.

• Step III. Calculate the column strength

 2E  2  200000
Fe    620.5 MPa
 K x Lx rx 
2 2
56.4
E 200000
K x Lx / rx  4.71  4.71  113.6
Fy 344

Fcr   0.658344 620.5   344  272.8 MPa

68402 Slide # 41
Ex. 3.4 – Design Strength
Pn  0.9  25030  272.8 1000  6145 kN

• Step IV. Check the local buckling limits

E
For the flanges, bf/2tf = 7.15 < r  0.56   13.5
Fy

E
For the web, h/tw = 17.7< r  0.56   13.5
Fy
Therefore, the section is non-compact. OK.

68402 Slide # 42
Ex. 3.5 – Column Design
 A compression member is subjected to service loads of 700 kN DL and 2400
kN of LL. The member is 7.8 m long & pinned at each end. Use A992 steel and
select a W shape.

• Step I. Calculate the factored design load Pu

Pu = 1.2 PD + 1.6 PL = 1.2 x 700 + 1.6 x 2400 = 4680 kN.

• Step II. Calculate Fcr by assuming KL/r = 80

 2E  2  200000
Fe    308.4 MPa
 KL r 
2 2
80
E 200000
KL / r  4.71  4.71  113.6
Fy 344

Fcr   0.658344 308.4   344  215.3 MPa

68402 Slide # 43
Ex. 3.5 – Column Design
• Step III. Calculate the required area of steel
A = 4680*1000/(0.9*215.3) = 24156 mm2

• Step IV. Select a W shape from the Section Property Tables

Select W14 x 132. It has A = 25030 mm2 OR W12 x 136 A = 25740 mm2
Select W14 x 132 because it has lower weight.
KyLy/ry =7800/95.5 = 81.7
Fe = 295.7 Fcr = 211.4 Pn = 4897.3 kN OK
W14 x 145 is the lightest.

 Section is non-compact but students have to check for that

 Note that column sections are usually W12 or W14. Generally sections bigger
than W14 are not used as columns.

68402 Slide # 44
 Effective Length
 Specific Values of K shall be known

End conditions K Recommended

Pin-Pin 1.0 design values (not
Pin-Fixed 0.8 theoretical values)

Fixed-Fixed 0.65
Fixed-Free 2.1

 Values for K for different end conditions range from 0.5 for
theoretically fixed ends to 1.0 for pinned ends and are given by:
Table C-C2.2 AISC Manual
 For compression elements connected as rigid frames the effective length
is a function of the relative stiffness of the element compared to the
overall stiffness of the joint. This will be discussed later in this chapter
68402 Slide # 45
K Factor for Rigid Frames
• If we assume all connections are pinned
then: Kx L = 3 m and Ky L = 6 m K xL  3
10m
'
3m
• However the rigidity of the beams affect K y L  620m'

the rotation of the columns. Thus in rigid

frames the K factor can be determined
from the relative rigidity of the columns 3m

• Determine a G factor
 Ec I c / Lc
G  E I /L G   I c / Lc

gg g  I g / Lg
• Where “c” represents column and “g” represents girder
• The G value is computed at each end of the member and K is
computed factor from the monograms in
AISC Manual – Figure C-C2.2
68402 Slide # 46
Effective Length of Columns in Frames
 So far, we have looked at the buckling strength of
individual columns. These columns had various boundary
conditions at the ends, but they were not connected to
other members with moment (fix) connections.
 The effective length factor K for the buckling of an
individual column can be obtained for the appropriate end
conditions from Table C-C2.2 of the AISC Manual .
 However, when these individual columns are part of a
frame, their ends are connected to other members (beams
etc.).
• Their effective length factor K will depend on the restraint offered by
the other members connected at the ends.
• Therefore, the effective length factor K will depend on the relative
rigidity (stiffness) of the members connected at the ends.
68402 Slide # 47
Effective Length of Columns in Frames
 The effective length factor for columns in frames must be
calculated as follows:
• First, you have to determine whether the column is part of a braced
frame or an unbraced (moment resisting) frame.
• If the column is part of a braced frame then its effective length factor 0
<K≤1
• If the column is part of an unbraced frame then 1 < K ≤ ∞
• Then, you have to determine the relative rigidity factor G for both
ends of the column
• G is defined as the ratio of the summation of the rigidity (EI/L) of all
columns coming together at an end to the summation of the rigidity
(EI/L) of all beams coming together at the same end.


E Ic
c: for columns
Lc
G It must be calculated for both ends of the column

E Ib
Lb b: for beams
68402 Slide # 48
Effective Length of Columns in Frames
• Then, you can determine the effective length factor K for the
column using the calculated value of G at both ends, i.e., GA and
GB and the appropriate alignment chart

• There are two alignment charts provided by the AISC manual,

• One is for columns in braced (sidesway inhibited) frames. 0 < K ≤ 1
• The second is for columns in unbraced (sidesway uninhibited) frames.
1<K≤∞
• The procedure for calculating G is the same for both cases.

68402 Slide # 49
Effective Length
Monograph or
Jackson and Moreland
Alignment Chart
for Unbraced Frame

68402 Slide # 50
Effective Length
Monograph or
Jackson and Moreland
Alignment Chart
for braced Frame

68402 Slide # 51
Ex. 3.6 – Effective Length Factor
 Calculate the effective
length factor for the
3.0
10 ft. m
W12 x 53 column AB of W14 x 68
the frame shown.
Assume that the column
3.0
10 ft.m
is oriented in such a
W14 x 68 A
way that major axis
bending occurs in the
plane of the frame. 3.6
12 ft.m
W14 x 68
Assume that the
B
columns are braced at
W12 x 79

W12 x 79

W12 x 79
each story level for out- 4.5
15 ft.m

of-plane buckling.
Assume that the same
column section is used
for the stories above 5.4
18 ft.m 5.4
18 ft.m 6m
20 ft.
and below. 68402 Slide # 52
Ex. 3.6 – Effective Length Factor
• Step I. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if
possible.
It is an unbraced (sidesway uninhibited) frame.
Lx = Ly = 3.6 m
Ky = 1.0
Kx depends on boundary conditions, which involve restraints due to
beams and columns connected to the ends of column AB.
Need to calculate Kx using alignment charts.

• Step II. Calculate Kx

Ixx of W 12 x 53 = 425 in4 Ixx of W14x68 = 753 in4
Ic 425 425
 
L c 10  12 12  12 6.493
GA     1.021
Ib 723 723 6.360
 
L b 18  12 20  12
68402 Slide # 53
Ex. 3.6 – Effective Length Factor
Ic 425 425
 
L c 12  12 15  12 5.3125
GB     0.835
Ib 723 723 6.360
 
L b 18  12 20  12
Using GA and GB: Kx = 1.3 - from Alignment Chart on Page
16.1-242

• Step III. Design strength of the column

KyLy = 1.0 x 12 = 12 ft.
Kx Lx = 1.3 x 12 = 15.6 ft.
rx / ry for W12x53 = 2.11
(KL)eq = 15.6 / 2.11 = 7.4 ft.
KyLy > (KL)eq
Therefore, y-axis buckling governs. Therefore cPn = 547 kips

68402 Slide # 54
Ex. 3.8 – Column Design
 Design Column AB of the frame shown below for a design
load of 2300 kN.
 Assume that the column is oriented in such a way that
major axis bending occurs in the plane of the frame.
 Assume that the columns are braced at each story level
for out-of-plane buckling.
 Assume that the same column section is used for the
stories above and below.
 Use A992 steel.

68402 Slide # 55
Ex. 3.8 – Column Design
3.0
10 ft. m
W14 x 68

3.0
10 ft.m
W14 x 68 A

3.6
12 ft.m
W14 x 68
B
W12 x 79

W12 x 79

W12 x 79
4.5
15 ft.m

5.4
18 ft.m 5.4
18 ft.m 6m
20 ft.

68402 Slide # 56
Ex. 3.8 – Column Design
• Step I - Determine the design load and assume the steel material.
Design Load = Pu = 2300 kN.
Steel yield stress = 344 MPa (A992 material).

• Step II. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if
possible.
It is an unbraced (sidesway uninhibited) frame.
Lx = Ly = 3.6 m
Ky = 1.0
Kx depends on boundary conditions, which involve restraints due
to beams and columns connected to the ends of column AB.
Need to calculate Kx using alignment charts.
Need to select a section to calculate Kx

68402 Slide # 57
Ex. 3.8 – Column Design
• Step III - Select a column section
Assume minor axis buckling governs.
Ky Ly = 3.6 m
Select section W12x53
KyLy/ry = 57.2 Fe = 604.4 Fcr = 271.1
cPn for y-axis buckling = 2455.4 kN

• Step IV - Calculate Kx
Ixx of W 12 x 53 = 177x106 mm4
Ixx of W14x68 = 301x106 mm4

68402 Slide # 58
Ex. 3.8 – Column Design
I c  177 177 
 L  3  3.6 
GA  c
  1.02
Ib 301 301
 L 5.4  6
b

I c  177 177 
 L  3.6  4.5 
GB  c
  0.836
Ib 301 301
 L 5.4  6
b

Using GA and GB: Kx = 1.3 - from Alignment Chart

68402 Slide # 59
Ex. 3.8 – Column Design
 Step V - Check the selected section for X-axis buckling
Kx Lx = 1.3 x 3.6 = 4.68 m
Kx Lx/rx = 35.2 Fe = 1590.4 Fcr = 314.2
For this column, cPn for X-axis buckling = 2846.3

 Step VI - Check the local buckling limits

E
For the flanges, bf/2tf = 8.69 < r  0.56   13.5
Fy

E
For the web, h/tw = 28.1 < r  1.49  F  35.9
y

Therefore, the section is non-compact. OK, local buckling is not a

problem
68402 Slide # 60
68402: Structural Design of Buildings II
61420: Design of Steel Structures
62323: Architectural Structures II

Design of Beams for Flexure

Monther Dwaikat
Assistant Professor
Department of Building Engineering
An-Najah National University

68402 Slide # 1
Design of Beams for Flexure
 Introduction

 Moment Curvature Response

 Sectional Properties

 Serviceability Requirements (Deflections)

 Compact, Non-compact and Slender Sections

 Lateral Torsional Buckling

 Design of Beams

68402 Slide # 2
Beams under Flexure
 Members subjected principally
to transverse gravity loading
• Girders (important floor beams,
wide spacing)
• Joists (less important beams,
closely spaced)
• Purlins (roof beams, spanning
between trusses)
• Stringers (longitudinal bridge
beams)
• Lintels (short beams above
window/door openings)
68402 Slide # 3
Design for Flexure
 Limit states considered
• Yielding
• Lateral-Torsional Buckling
• Local Buckling
• Compact
• Non-compact
• Slender

68402 Slide # 4
Design for Flexure – LRFD Spec.
 Commonly Used Sections:
• I – shaped members (singly- and doubly-symmetric)
• Square and Rectangular or round HSS
• Tees and Double Angles
• Rounds and Rectangular Bars
• Single Angles Will not be covered
in this course
• Unsymmetrical Shapes

68402 Slide # 5
Section Force-Deformation
Response & Plastic Moment (MP)
 A beam is a w P
structural member
that is subjected x

primarily to
transverse loads and V(x)

negligible axial
loads.
 The transverse loads
cause internal SF M(x)
and BM in the beams
as shown in Fig. 1
Fig. 1- SF & BM in a SS Beam

68402 Slide # 6
Section Force-Deformation
Response & Plastic Moment (MP)
 These internal SF & BM cause longitudinal axial stresses
and shear stresses in the cross-section as shown in the Fig.
2   dF =  b dy

d y

M(x)
V(x)

 
b

d / 2 d / 2

 Curvature =  = 2/d F    b dy M    b dy y
d / 2 d / 2
(Planes remain plane)
Fig. 2 - Longitudinal axial stresses caused by internal BM
68402 Slide # 7
Section Force-Deformation
Response & Plastic Moment (MP)
 Steel material follows a typical stress-strain behavior as
shown in Fig 3 below. E = 200 GPa

u

y

y  u

Fig 3 - Typical steel stress-strain behavior.

68402 Slide # 8
 Section Force-Deformation
Response & Plastic Moment (MP)
 If the steel stress-strain curve is approximated as a bilinear
elasto-plastic curve with yield stress equal to y, then the
section Moment - Curvature (M-) response for
monotonically increasing moment is given by Fig. 4.
 In Fig. 4, My is the moment corresponding to first yield and
Mp is the plastic moment capacity of the cross-section.
• The ratio of Mp to My - the shape factor f for the section.
• For a rectangular section, f = 1.5. For a wide-flange section, f ≈ 1.1.

68402 Slide # 9
 Moment-Curvature (NEW)
• Beam curvature  is related to its strain and thus to the
applied moment


y

 (1) (2) (3) (4)

 M
  
y EI

68402 Slide # 10
Moment-Curvature (NEW)
• When the section is within elastic range

M y M
F x  M  S x Fx
Ix Sx
Where S is the elastic section modulus
• When the moment exceeds the yield moment My
M y  S x Fy a
• Then

A
Z x  ( )a
M p  Z x Fy 2

Where Z is the plastic section modulus  1.1 S

68402 Slide # 11
Section Force-Deformation
Response & Plastic Moment (MP)

Mp
B C D E
My A
y y y y y
Section Moment, M

y y y y y
y y y y

y y y y

A B C D E

Curvature, 

A: Extreme fiber reaches y B: Extreme fiber reaches 2y C: Extreme fiber reaches 5y
D: Extreme fiber reaches 10y E: Extreme fiber reaches infinite strain

Fig. 4 - M- response of a beam section

68402 Slide # 12
Section Force-Deformation
Response & Plastic Moment (MP)
 Calculation of MP: Cross-section subjected to either +y or - y at
the plastic limit. See Figure 5 below.
y
A1 y1 y A 1
Plastic centroid.
A2 y2
y A 2

y
(a) General cross- (b) Stress (c) Force distribution
section distribution F   y A1   y A 2  0
 A1  A 2  A / 2
Figure 5. Plastic centroid and MP for A
 M   y  ( y1  y 2 )
general cross-section. 2
Where , y1  centroid of A1
y 2  centroid of A 2
68402 Slide # 13
Moment-Curvature
• When the whole section is yielding a plastic hinge
will be formed

plastic hinge

• Structural analysis by assuming collapsing mechanisms of

a structure is known as “Plastic analysis”
• The plastic moment Mp is therefore the moment needed at
the section to form a plastic hinge
68402 Slide # 14
Section Force-Deformation
Response & Plastic Moment (MP)
 The plastic centroid for a general cross-section
corresponds to the axis about which the total area is
equally divided, i.e., A1 = A2 = A/2
• The plastic centroid is not the same as the elastic centroid or
center of gravity (c.g.) of the cross-section.
• As shown below, the c.g. is defined as the axis about which A1y1 =
A2y2.

y1 A1, y1
c.g. = elastic N.A. A , y About the c.g. A 1 y 1 = A 2 y2
y2
2 2

68402 Slide # 15
Section Force-Deformation
Response & Plastic Moment (MP)
• For a cross-section with at-least one axis of symmetry, the
neutral axis corresponds to the centroidal axis in the elastic
range. However, at Mp, the neutral axis will correspond to the
plastic centroidal axis.

 For a doubly symmetric cross-section, the elastic and

the plastic centroid lie at the same point.

 Mp = y x A/2 x (y1+y2)

 As shown in Figure 5, y1 and y2 are the distance from

the plastic centroid to the centroid of area A1 and A2,
respectively.
68402 Slide # 16
Section Force-Deformation
Response & Plastic Moment (MP)
 A/2 x (y1+y2) is called Z, the plastic section
modulus of the cross-section. Values for Z are
tabulated for various cross-sections in the
properties section of the LRFD manual.
• bMp = 0.90 Z Fy
b - strength reduction factor
Mp - plastic moment, which must be  1.5 My for homogenous
cross-sections
My - moment corresponding to onset of yielding at the extreme
fiber from an elastic stress distribution = Fy S for homogenous
cross-sections and = Fyf S for hybrid sections.
Z - plastic section modulus from the Properties section of the
AISC manual.
S - elastic section modulus, also from the Properties section of
the AISC manual.
68402 Slide # 17
Ex. 4.1 – Sectional Properties
 Determine the elastic section modulus, S, plastic section
modulus, Z, yield moment, My, and the plastic moment MP,
of the cross-section shown below. What is the design
moment for the beam cross-section. Assume A992 steel.

12 mm
300 in.
F1 0.75
15 mmin.

W t = 0.5 16
400in.
mm
w in.
10 mm

F2 25 mm
1.0 in.

15 mm
400 in.
68402 Slide # 18
Ex. 4.1 – Sectional Properties
 Ag = 300 x 15 + (400 - 15 - 25) x 10 + 400 x 25 = 18100 mm2
Af1 = 300 x 15 = 4500 mm2
Af2 = 400 x 25 = 10000 mm2
Aw = 10 x (400 - 15 - 25) = 3600 mm2

 distance of elastic centroid from bottom = y

4500(400  15 / 2)  3600  205  10000  12.5
y  145.3 mm
18100

Ix = 400x253/12 +10000(12.5-145.3)2 + 10x3603/12 +3600(205-

145.3)2 + 300x153/12 +4500(392.5-145.3)2 = 503.7x106 mm4
Sx = 503.7x106 / (400-145.3) = 1977.5x103 mm3
My-x = Fy Sx = 680.2 kN-m.
Sx - elastic section modulus
68402 Slide # 19
 Ex. 4.1 – Sectional Properties
 distance of plastic centroid from bottom = y p
18100
 400  y p   9050
2
 y p  22.6 mm

 y1 = centroid of top half-area about plastic centroid

yp 18100  145.3  9050  22.6 / 2
=  22.6  256.7 mm
9050

 y2 = centroid of bottom half-area about plas. cent.

= 22.6 / 2  11.3 mm

 Zx = A/2 x (y1 + y2) = 9050 x (256.7 + 11.3) = 2425400 mm3

 Zx - plastic section modulus

68402 Slide # 20
Ex. 4.1 – Sectional Properties
 Mp-x = Zx Fy = 2425400 x 344/106 = 834.3 kN.m

 Design strength according to AISC Spec. F1.1= bMp= 0.9 x 834.3

= 750.9 kN.m

 Check = Mp  1.5 My

 Therefore, 834.3 kN.m < 1.5 x 680.2 = 1020.3 kN.m - OK!

68402 Slide # 21
Flexural Deflection of Beams -
Serviceability
 Steel beams are designed for the factored design loads.
The moment capacity, i.e., the factored moment strength
(bMn) should be greater than the moment (Mu) caused
by the factored loads.

 A serviceable structure is one that performs

satisfactorily, not causing discomfort or perceptions of
unsafety for the occupants or users of the structure.
• For a steel beam, being serviceable usually means that the
deformations, primarily the vertical slag, or deflection, must be
limited.

• The maximum deflection of the designed beam is checked at the

service-level loads. The deflection due to service-level loads
must be less than the specified values.
68402 Slide # 22
Serviceability Requirements
• Steel beams need to satisfy SLS in addition to ULS
• Serviceability limit states are usually checked using non-factored loads.
• Deflection under live loads shall be limited to L/360
• Dead load deflections can be compensated by cambering beams.
• SLS might also include limiting stresses in bottom or top flanges if
fatigue is a concern in design (Will be further discussed with plate
girders).
• Standard equations to calculate deflection for different load cases:

68402 Slide # 23
Flexural Deflection of Beams -
Serviceability
 The AISC Specification gives little guidance other than a
statement, “Serviceability Design Considerations,” that
deflections should be checked. Appropriate limits for
deflection can be found from the governing building code
for the region.

 The following values of deflection are typical max.

allowable deflections.
LL DL+LL
• Plastered floor construction L/360 L/240
• Unplastered floor construction L/240 L/180
• Unplastered roof construction L/180 L/120

• DL deflection – normally not considered for steel beams

68402 Slide # 24
Flexural Deflection of Beams -
Serviceability
 In the following examples, we will assume that
local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling are
not controlling limit states, i.e, the beam section is
compact and laterally supported along the length.

68402 Slide # 25
Ex. 4.2 - Deflections
 Design a 9 m long simply supported beam subjected to
UDL of 6 kN/m dead load and a UDL of 8 kN/m live load.
The dead load does not include the self-weight of the
beam.

• Step I. Calculate the factored design loads (without self-weight).

wu = 1.2 wD + 1.6 wL = 20 kN/m
Mu = wu L2 / 8 = 20 x 92 / 8 = 202.5 kN.m (SS beam)

• Step II. Select the lightest section from the AISC Manual design
tables.
Zx = Mu/(bFy) = 202.5x106/(0.9x344) = 654x103
select W16 x 26 made from A992 steel with bMp = 224 kN.m
68402 Slide # 26
Ex. 4.2 - Deflections
• Step III. Add self-weight of designed section and check design
wsw = 0.38 kN/m
Therefore, wD = 6.38 kN/m
wu = 1.2 x 6.38 + 1.6 x 6 = 20.46 kN/m
Therefore, Mu = 20.46 x 92 / 8 = 207.2 kN.m < bMp of
W16 x 26.
OK!

• Step IV. Check deflection at service loads.

w = 8 kN/m
D = 5 w L4 / (384 E Ix) = 5 x (8) x103 x (9)4 / (384 x 200x125)
D = 27.3 mm > L/360 - for plastered floor construction

• Step V. Redesign with service-load deflection as design criteria

L /360 = 25 mm > 5 w L4/(384 E Ix)
Therefore, Ix > 136.7x106 mm4
68402 Slide # 27
Ex. 4.2 - Deflections
Select the section from the moment of inertia selection from
Section Property Tables – select W16 x 31 with Ix = 156x106 mm4

 Note that the serviceability design criteria controlled the design

and the section

68402 Slide # 28
Ex. 4.3 – Beam Design
 Design the beam shown below. The unfactored dead and live loads
are shown in Fig. 6 below.
40 kN (live load)
10 kips
10 kN/m
0.67 k/ft. (dead load)
11 kN/m
0.75 k/ft. (live load)

15 ft.m
4.5

930mft.
 Step I. Calculate the factored design loads (without self-weight).
wu = 1.2 wD + 1.6 wL = 1.2 x 10 + 1.6 x 11 = 29.6 kN/m
Pu = 1.2 PD + 1.6 PL = 1.2 x 0 + 1.6 x 40 = 64 kN
Mu = wU L2 / 8 + PU L / 4 = 299.7 + 144 = 443.7 kN.m
68402 Slide # 29
Ex. 4.3 – Beam Design
 Step II. Select W21 x 44 Zx = 1563x103 mm3
bMp = 0.9x1563x103x344/1000000 = 483.9 kN.m
Self-weight = wsw = 0.64 kN/m.

 Step III. Add self-weight of designed section and check design

wD = 10 + 0.64 = 10.64 kN/m
wu = 1.2 x 10.64 + 1.6 x 11 = 30.4 kN/m
Therefore, Mu = 30.4 x 92/8 + 144 = 451.8 < bMp of
W21 x 44.
OK!
 Step IV. Check deflection at service live loads.
Service loads
• Distributed load = w = 11 kN/m
• Concentrated load = P = L = 40 kN
68402 Slide # 30
Ex. 4.3 – Beam Design
Deflection due to uniform distributed load = d = 5 w L4 / (384 EI)
Deflection due to concentrated load = c = P L3 / (48 EI)

Therefore, service-load deflection =  = d + c

 = 5x11x94x109/(384x351x106x200) +40x93x109/(48x351x106x200)
 = 13.4 + 8.7 = 22.1 mm
L = 9 m.
Assuming unplastered floor construction, max = L/240 = 9000/240 =
37.5 mm
Therefore,  < max - OK!

68402 Slide # 31
Local Buckling of Beam Section –
Compact and Non-compact
 Mp, the plastic moment capacity for the steel shape, is
calculated by assuming a plastic stress distribution (+ or - y)
over the cross-section.
 The development of a plastic stress distribution over the
cross-section can be hindered by two different length effects:
• Local buckling of the individual plates (flanges and webs) of the
cross-section before they develop the compressive yield stress y.
• Lateral-torsional buckling of the unsupported length of the beam /
member before the cross-section develops the plastic moment Mp.

 The analytical equations for local buckling of steel plates with

various edge conditions and the results from experimental
investigations have been used to develop limiting slenderness
ratios for the individual plate elements of the cross-sections.
68402 Slide # 32
Local Buckling of Beam Section –
Compact and Non-compact

Figure 7. Local buckling of flange due to compressive stress (s)

68402 Slide # 33
Local Buckling of Beam Section –
Compact and Non-compact
 Steel sections are classified as compact, non-compact, or
slender depending upon the slenderness (l) ratio of the
individual plates of the cross-section.
• Compact section if all elements of cross-section have   p
• Non-compact sections if any one element of the cross-section has p  
 r
• Slender section if any element of the cross-section has r  

 It is important to note that:

• If   p, then the individual plate element can develop and sustain y for
large values of e before local buckling occurs.
• If p    r, then the individual plate element can develop y at some
locations but not in the entire cross section before local buckling occurs.
• If r  , then elastic local buckling of the individual plate element occurs.

68402 Slide # 34
 Classification of Sections
• Classifications of bending elements are based on limits of local buckling
• The dimensional ratio l represents bf

h bf tf
 
tw 2t f h
• Two limits exist p and r tw
 p represents the upper limit for compact sections
 r represents the upper limit for non-compact sections

   P L compact
 P     r L non  compact
  r L slender
68402 Slide # 35
Local Buckling of Beam Section –
Compact and Non-compact
 Thus, slender
sections cannot Compact

Co mpressive axial stress, 

y
develop Mp due to
elastic local Non-Compact

buckling. Non- Slender

compact sections
can develop My but
not Mp before local
buckling occurs.
Only compact Effective axial strain, 

sections can Figure 8. Stress-strain response of plates

develop the plastic subjected to axial compression and local
moment Mp. buckling.
68402 Slide # 36
Local Buckling of Beam Section –
Compact and Non-compact
 All rolled wide-flange shapes are compact with the
following exceptions, which are non-compact.
• W21x48, W40x174, W14x99, W14x90, W12x65, W10x12, W8x10,
W6x15 (made from A992)

68402 Slide # 37
Classification of Sections
• The limits are bf
Flange Web
tf
bf h
  h
2t f tw tw

E E
 p  0 . 38  p  3 .76
Fy Fy

E E
 r  0 . 83  r  5 . 70
F y  68 . 9 Fy

68402 Slide # 38
Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB)
(a)

 The laterally unsupported M

length of a beam-member
can undergo LTB due to
the applied flexural
loading (BM). (b)

Figure 9. Lateral-torsional
buckling of a wide-flange beam
subjected to constant moment.
M

68402 Slide # 39
Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB)
 LTB is fundamentally similar to the flexural buckling or
flexural-torsional buckling of a column subjected to axial
loading.
• The similarity is that it is also a bifurcation-buckling type
phenomenon.
• The differences are that lateral-torsional buckling is caused by
flexural loading (M), and the buckling deformations are coupled in
the lateral and torsional directions.

 There is one very important difference. For a column, the

axial load causing buckling remains constant along the length.
But, for a beam, usually the LTB causing bending moment
M(x) varies along the unbraced length.
• The worst situation is for beams subjected to uniform BM along the
unbraced length. Why?
68402 Slide # 40
Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB) –
Uniform BM
 Consider a beam that is simply-supported at the ends and
subjected to four-point loading as shown below. The beam
center-span is subjected to uniform BM (M). Assume that
lateral supports are provided at the load points.
P P

Lb

 Laterally unsupported length = Lb.

 If the laterally unbraced length Lb is less than or equal to a
plastic length LP then lateral torsional buckling is not a
problem and the beam will develop its plastic strength MP.
68402 Slide # 41
Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB) –
Uniform BM
 Lp = 1.76 ry x E / Fy - for I members & channels

 If Lb is greater than LP then lateral torsional buckling will

occur and the moment capacity of the beam will be
reduced below the plastic strength MP as shown in Fig. 10.
 As shown in Fig. 10, the lateral-torsional buckling moment
(Mn = Mcr) is a function of the laterally unbraced length Lb
and can be calculated using the equation:

68402 Slide # 42
Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB) –
Uniform BM
 2 EI y   2 ECw 
 Mn = Mcr = 2  GJ  
L b  L2b 
Mn - moment capacity
Lb - laterally unsupported length.
Mcr - critical lateral-torsional buckling moment.
E – 200 GPa;
G – 77 GPa
Iy - moment of inertia about minor or y-axis (mm4)
J - torsional constant (mm4) from the Section Property Tables.
Cw - warping constant (mm6) from the Section Property Tables.
 This Eq. is valid for ELASTIC LTB only (like the Euler equation). This
means it will work only as long as the cross-section is elastic and no
portion of the cross-section has yielded.

68402 Slide # 43
 Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB) –
Uniform BM
Mn = Mp
  Lb  L p 
M n   M p  ( M p  M r ) 
Zx Fy= Mp
  L  L 
 r p 

Sx (F y – 10)
(0.7F y)
= Mr  2 EI y   2 ECw 
Mn = 2 GJ  
L  L2b 
Moment Capacity, M n

Plastic Inelastic
No LTB Elastic
Instability LTB

Lp Lr
Unbraced length, Lb

Fig. 10 Lateral Torsional Buckling (Uniform Bending)

68402 Slide # 44
Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB) –
Uniform BM
 As soon as any portion of the cross-section reaches the
yield stress Fy, the elastic LTB equation cannot be used.
• Lr is the unbraced length that corresponds to a LTB moment

Mr = Sx (0.7Fy).

• Mr will cause yielding of the cross-section due to residual stresses.

 When the unbraced length is less than Lr, then the elastic
LTB Eq. cannot be used.

 When the unbraced length (Lb) is less than Lr but more

than the plastic length Lp, then the LTB Mn is given by the
Eq. below:
68402 Slide # 45
Lateral-Torsional Buckling –
Uniform BM
  Lb  L p 
• If Lp  Lb  Lr, then M n   M p  ( M p  M r )
 L  L 

  r p 

• This is linear interpolation between (Lp, Mp) and (Lr, Mr)

• See Fig. 10 again.

2
E Jc  0.7 Fy S x h0 
• Lr  1.95rts 1  1  6.76 
0.7 Fy S x h0  E Jc 
I y Cw
• r 
2
ts
Sx

• For a doubly symmetric I-shape: c = 1

• h0 = distance between the flange centroids (mm)

68402 Slide # 46
Moment Capacity of Beams
Subjected to Non-uniform BM
 As mentioned previously, the case with uniform bending
moment is worst for lateral torsional buckling.

 For cases with non-uniform bending moment, the LTB

moment is greater than that for the case with uniform
moment.

 The AISC specification says that:

• The LTB moment for non-uniform bending moment case
• Cb x lateral torsional buckling moment for uniform moment case.

68402 Slide # 47
Moment Capacity of Beams
Subjected to Non-uniform BM
 Cb is always greater than 1.0 for non-uniform bending
moment.
• Cb is equal to 1.0 for uniform bending moment.
• Sometimes, if you cannot calculate or figure out Cb, then it can be
conservatively assumed as 1.0. for doubly and singly symmetric
sections
12.5 M max
Cb   3.0
2.5 M max  3 M A  4 M B  3 M c

Mmax - magnitude of maximum bending moment in Lb

MA - magnitude of bending moment at quarter point of Lb
MB - magnitude of bending moment at half point of Lb
MC - magnitude of bending moment at three-quarter point of Lb
• Use absolute values of M
68402 Slide # 48
Flexural Strength of Compact
Sections

12.5M max
Cb   3.0
2.5M max  3M A  4M B  3M C

MA @ quarter
MC
@ three-quarter MB Mmax
@ mid

Moments determined between bracing points

68402 Slide # 49
Values of Cb
3-1

68402 Slide # 50
Moment Capacity of Beams Subjected
to Non-uniform Bending Moments
 The moment capacity Mn for the case of non-uniform
bending moment
• Mn = Cb x {Mn for the case of uniform bending moment}  Mp
• Important to note that the increased moment capacity for the non-
uniform moment case cannot possibly be more than Mp.
• Therefore, if the calculated values is greater than Mp, then you have
to reduce it to Mp

68402 Slide # 51
Moment Capacity of Beams
Subjected to Non-uniform BM

Mp
Non-uniform BM
Mr
Moment Capacity, Mn

Cb = 1.5
Cb = 1.2
Cb = 1.0

Uniform BM

Lp Lr
Unbraced length, Lb

Figure 11. Moment capacity versus Lb for non-uniform moment case

Cb = 1.0 means uniform BM 68402 Slide # 52
 Structural Design of Beams
• Steps for adequate design of beams:
1) Compute the factored loads, factored moment and shear
2) Determine unsupported length Lb and Cb
3) Select a WF shape and choose Zx assuming it is a compact section
with full lateral support
M n  M p  ZFy
Mu
Zx 
b F y Mu  b Mn  0.9 ZFy
4) Check the section dimension for compactness and determine bMn

M u  b M n

5) Use service loads to check deflection requirements

68402 Slide # 53
Ex. 4.4 – Beam Design
 Use Grade 50 steel to design the beam shown below. The
unfactored uniformly distributed live load is equal to 40
kN/m. There is no dead load. Lateral support is provided at
the end reactions. Select W16 section.
wwLL== 40 kN/m
3 kips/ft.

24 ft.m
7.5

Lateral support / bracing

68402 Slide # 54
Ex. 4.4 – Beam Design
• Step I. Calculate the factored loads assuming a reasonable self-
weight.
Assume self-weight = wsw = 1.46 kN/m.
Dead load = wD = 0 + 1.46 = 1.46 kN/m.
Live load = wL = 40 kN/m.
Ultimate load = wu = 1.2 wD + 1.6 wL = 65.8 kN/m.
Factored ultimate moment = Mu = wu L2/8 = 462.3 kN-m.
Is BM uniform?? Yes Cb =1.0
No Go to Step II

• Step II. Determine unsupported length Lb and Cb

There is only one unsupported span with Lb = 7.5 m
Cb = 1.14 for the parabolic bending moment diagram, See values of
Cb shown in Table 3-1.
68402 Slide # 55
Ex. 4.4 – Beam Design
• Step III. Select a wide-flange shape
• Compute Zx = 462.3*106/(0.9*344) = 1493x106 mm3.
• Select W16 x 50 steel section
• Zx = 1508x103 mm3 Sx = 1327x103 mm3 ry = 40.4 mm
• Cw = 610x109 mm6 Iy = 15.5x106 mm4 J = 0.63x106 mm4

1.76  40.4 200000 344

• L p  1.76ry E / Fy   1.71 m
1000
2
E Jc  0.7 Fy S x h0 
• Lr  1.95rts
0.7 Fy S x h0
1  1  6.76 
 E Jc 

I y Cw 15.5  106  610 109

• rts    48.1 mm
Sx 1327 10 3

68402 Slide # 56
Ex. 4.4 – Beam Design
• h0 = D - TF = 414 – 16 = 398 mm
2 2
 0.7 Fy S x h0   0.7  344 1327 103  398 
• 1  6.76   1  6.76   2.81
 200000 0.63 10 1 
6
 E Jc 

48.1 200000 0.63 106 1

• Lr  1.95   1  2.81  5.26 m
1000 0.7  344 1327 10  398
3

• Lb > Lr
 2 EI y   2 ECw 
M n  Cb 2
 GJ  2

Lb  L
b 
 2  200 15.5  106   2  200  610  109 
 1.14 2
 77  0.63  10 
6
2

7500  7500 
1508  10 3
 344
 222  103 kN .mm  222 kN .m  M p  6
 518.8 kN .m
10
68402 Slide # 57
Ex. 4.4 – Beam Design
• Step IV. Check if section is adequate
• Mu > Mn Not OK
• Step V. Try a larger section.
• After few trials select W16 x 67 Mn = 497.7 > Mu OK

• Step VI. Check for local buckling.

 = Bf / 2Tf = 7.7; Corresponding p = 0.38 (E/Fy)0.5 = 9.19
Therefore,  <  p - compact flange
 = H/Tw = 35.9; Corresponding p = 3.76 (E/Fy)0.5 = 90.5
Therefore,  <  p - compact web
Compact section. - OK!
 This example demonstrates the method for designing beams and
accounting for Cb > 1.0)
 Values for Lr and Lp can be obtained from Tables too
68402 Slide # 58
Ex. 4.5 – Beam Design
 Design the beam shown below. The concentrated live
loads acting on the beam are shown in the Figure. The
beam is laterally supported at the load and reaction points.
Use Grade 50 steel.
30 kips
135 KN 135 KN
30 kips
w sw = 0.1
1.5kips/ft.
KN/m

12
3.6ft.m 8 ft.m
2.4 10
3.0ft.m
309.0
ft. m
Lateral support / bracing

68402 Slide # 59
Ex. 4.5 – Beam Design
• Step I. Assume a self-weight and determine the factored design
loads
Let, wsw = 1.5 kN/m
PL = 135 kN
Pu = 1.6 PL = 216 kN
wu = 1.2 x wsw = 1.8 kN/m
The reactions and bending moment diagram for the beam are
shown below.

68402 Slide # 60
Ex. 4.5 – Beam Design
216kips
48 KN 216
48 KN
kips
w sw = 1.8
0.12KN/m
kips/ft.

A D
B C

12m
3.6 ft. 8 ft.
2.4 m 10
3.0ft.m
46.6 kips
209.7 kN 53 kips
238.5 kN

A B C D

550.6 kip-ft. 524 kip-ft.

715.5 kN.m
754.9 kN.m

Lateral support / bracing

68402 Slide # 61
Ex. 4.5 – Beam Design
• Step II. Determine Lb, Cb, Mu, and Mu/Cb for all spans.

Span Lb Cb Mu Mu/Cb
(m) (kN-m) (kN-m)
AB 3.6 1.67 754.9 452.8
BC 2.4 1.0 754.9 754.9
(assume)
CD 3.0 1.67 715.5 429.2

It is important to note that it is possible to have different Lb and

Cb values for different laterally unsupported spans of the same
beam.

Cb – Table 3-1
68402 Slide # 62
Ex. 4.5 – Beam Design
• Step III. Design the beam and check all laterally unsupported spans
Assume that span BC is the controlling span because it has the
largest Mu/Cb although the corresponding Lb is the smallest.
Required Zx = 754.9*106/(0.9*344) = 2438x103 mm3
After few trials select W21 x 68 from section property Table.
Lp = 1.94 m Lr = 5.73 m (From Tables)
  Lb  L p 
For all members Lp < Lb < Lr M n  Cb  M p  ( M p  M r ) 

  Lr  L p 
Check the selected section for spans AB, BC, and CD
Span Lb (m) Cb bMn for Cb value bMp limit
AB 3.6 1.67 1125.5 kN.m 811.8 kN.m
BC 2.4 1.0 773.6
CD 3 1.67 1208.7 kN.m 811.8 kN.m

68402 Slide # 63
Ex. 4.5 – Beam Design
Thus, for span AB, bMn = 811.8 kN.m > Mu - OK!
For span BC, bMn = 773.6 kN.m > Mu - OK!
For span CD, bMn = 811.8 kN.m > Mu - OK!

• Step IV. Check for local buckling

Bf / 2Tf = 6.04; Corresponding p = 0.38 (E/Fy)0.5 = 9.19
Therefore compact flange
H/Tw = 43.6; Corresponding p = 3.76 (E/Fy)0.5 = 90.55
Therefore compact web
Compact section. - OK!

• This example demonstrates the method for designing beams with

several laterally unsupported spans with different Lb and Cb values.
68402 Slide # 64
 Ex. 4.6 – Beam Design
 Design the simply-supported beam shown below. The
uniformly distributed dead load is equal to 15 kN/m and
the uniformly distributed live load is equal to 30 kN/m. A
concentrated live load equal to 40 kN acts at the mid-
span. Lateral supports are provided at the end reactions
and at the mid-span. Use Grade 50 steel.
40kips
10 kN
wD = 15
1.0kN/m
kips/ft.
wL =30
2.0kN/m
kips/ft.

A C
B

3.6 m
12 ft. 3.6 m
12 ft.

Lateral support / bracing

68402 Slide # 65
Ex. 4.6 – Beam Design
• Step I. Assume the self-weight and calculate the factored design loads.
Let, wsw = 1.5 kN/m
wD = 15 + 1.5 = 16.5 kN/m
wL = 30 kN/m
wu = 1.2 wD + 1.6 wL = 67.8 kN/m
Pu = 1.6 x 40 = 64 kN
The reactions and the bending moment diagram for the factored loads
are shown below. 64 kips
16 kN
w u = 67.8 kN/m
4.52 kips/ft.

3.612mft. 12 ft.
3.6 m
276.1kips
62.24 kN 62.24 kN
276.1 kips
x M(x)==62.24
M(x) 276.1(x) + 67.8(x)2/2
x - 4.52x2 /2

68402 Slide # 66
Ex. 4.6 – Beam Design
• Step II. Calculate Lb and Cb for the laterally unsupported spans.
Since this is a symmetric problem, need to consider only span AB
Lb =3.6 m, M(x) = 276.1 x – 67.8 x2/2
Therefore,
MA = M(x = 0.9 m) = 221 kN.m - quarter-point along Lb = 3.6 m
MB = M(x = 1.8 m) = 387 kN.m - half-point along Lb = 3.6 m
MC = M(x = 2.7 m) = 498 kN.m - three-quarter point along Lb= 3.6 m
Mmax = M(x = 3.6 m) = 554.6 kN.m - maximum moment along Lb =3.6 m
Therefore, Cb = 1.36

68402 Slide # 67
Ex. 4.6 – Beam Design
• Step III. Design the beam section
Mu = Mmax = 554.6 kN.m
Lb = 3.6 m, Cb = 1.36
Required Zx = 554.6*106/(0.9*344) = 1791x103 mm3
After few trials, select W21 x 57 steel section
Lp = 1.46 m Lr = 4.37 m
Lp < Lb < Lr
bMn = 699 kN.m > bMp = 639.3 kN.m
bMn= 639.3 >Mu OK

68402 Slide # 68
Ex. 4.6 – Beam Design

• Step V. Check for local buckling.

Bf / 2Tf = 7.87; Corresponding p = 0.38 (E/Fy)0.5 = 9.192
Therefore, compact flange
l = h/tw = 50.0; Corresponding p = 3.76 (E/Fy)0.5 = 90.55
Therefore, compact web
Compact section. - OK!

• This example demonstrates the calculation of Cb and

the iterative design method.

68402 Slide # 69
Shear Capacity
 The shear capacity of the beam is

V u   vV n Vn  0 .6 F y Aw C v  v  0 .9
 For I-shaped sections, the factors Cv and v are functions of the shear
buckling of the web and thus the ration h/tw

if h / t w  2 . 24
E v  1.0
Fy
C v  1 .0

representing the case of no web instability.

Aw = dtw
68402 Slide # 70
Shear Capacity
For all other doubly and singly sym. sections and channels except
round HSS
 The first case represents the case of no web instability.
v  0.9
h / t w  1 . 10
kv E
C v  1 .0  v  0 .9
Fy
 The second case represents inelastic web buckling
kv E k E 1.10 k v E F y
1.10  h / t w  1.37 v Cv   v  0 .9
Fy Fy h tw
 The last case represents elastic web buckling

kv E 1.51Ekv
h / t w  1 . 37 Cv   v  0 .9
Fy
h / t w 2 Fy

68402 Slide # 71
Shear Capacity
• Aw = dtw
• The web plate buckling coefficient, kv, is given
• For unstiffened webs with h/tw <260, kv = 5 except for the stem of tee
shapes, kv =1.2
• For stiffened webs
 5 
5  
 a h 2

kv   2
  260  
5, a h  3.0 or a h  h t  
  w 

• a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners

• h = for rolled shapes, the clear distance between flanges less the fillet
of corner radii.

68402 Slide # 72
Beam Bearing Plates
 Design of a beam bearing plate would require checking:

B N

 1- Web Yielding and Web crippling to determine N

 2- Bearing capacity to determine B
 3- Plate moment capacity to determine t

AISC Specifications: Chapter K

68402 Slide # 73
Beam Bearing Plates
 When a bearing plate is used at beam end, two limit states shall be
considered

 1. Web Yielding
R  R n   1 .0
 This represents yield of the web at the vicinity of the flange due
to excessive loading R
CASE 1: At Support
R n  ( 2 .5 k  N ) F y t w N k

CASE 2: Interior Load

R
Rn  (5k  N ) F y tw

68402 Slide # 74
Beam Bearing Plates
 2. Web Crippling
 Web crippling represent the possible buckling of the web

CASE 1: At Support R  R n   0 . 75
 N   t w 
1 .5

 
E Fy t f N
Rn  0 . 4 t w 1  3 
2
   0 .2
  d  t f   tw d
  

  tw 
1 .5

 4 N  E Fy t f N
Rn  0 . 4 t w 1  
2
 0 .2      0 .2
  d   t f 
  tw d
 
CASE 2: Interior Load
 1 .5

  N   t w 
 
E Fy t f
Rn  0 .8 t w 1  3 
2

  d  t f   tw
  
68402 Slide # 75
 Ex. 4.7 – Beam Design
 Check the beam shown in the figure below for:
• Shear capacity.
• Web yielding.
• Web crippling.
• Assume the width of the bearing plate is 100 mm. Use Grade 50
steel.
40kips
10 kN
wD = 10
1.0kN/m
kips/ft.
wL =25
2.0kN/m
kips/ft.

A C
B
W16x26
2m
12 ft. 2m
12 ft.

68402 Slide # 76
Ex. 4.7 – Beam Design
• Step I. The section used from Example 4.6 is W21x57.
The self-weight wsw = 0.83 kN/m
wD = 10 + 0.38 = 10.38 kN/m
wL = 25 kN/m
wu = 1.2 wD + 1.6 wL = 52.5 kN/m
Pu = 1.6 x 40 = 64 kN
The reactions and the bending moment diagram for the factored loads
are shown below. 64 kips
16 kN
w u = 52.5 kN/m
4.52 kips/ft.

2 12
m ft. 12
2mft.
137 kips
62.24 kN 62.24kN
137 kips
x Vu =x 137
M(x) = 62.24 - 4.52kN
x2 /2

68402 Slide # 77
Ex. 4.7 – Beam Design
• Step II. h/tw = 56.8
E 200000 h
2.24  2.24  54   56.8
Fy 344 tw

Assume unstiffened web, h/tw <260, kv = 5

kv E 5  200000 h
1.10  1.10  59.3   56.8
Fy 344 tw
Cv  1   0.9
Assume unstiffened web, h/tw <260, kv = 5
Vn = 0.9*(0.6Fy)*d*tw*Cv
Vn = 0.9*(0.6x344)*399*6.4x10-3 = 474.4 kN> Vu

68402 Slide # 78
Ex. 4.7 – Beam Design
• Step III. Web yielding critical is support
k = 19 mm
R = (2.5k + N)*Fy*tw
R = 1x(2.5x19 + 100)x344x6.4/1000 = 324.7 kN
R > reaction = 137 kN OK

• Step IV. Web crippling critical is support

d = 399 mm tw = 6.4 mm tf = 8.8 mm
N/d = 100/399 = 0.25 > 0.2

  
1.5
 EF t
  4 N  w  
t
Rn  0.4t w 1    0.2 
2 y f

  d  t f   tw
 

68402 Slide # 79
Ex. 4.7 – Beam Design
  4  100  6. 4   200000  344  8.8
1.5

Rn  0.4  6.4 1  
2
 0.2    10 3  238.7 kN
  399  8.8   6.4

R = 179 kN > reaction = 137 kN OK

68402 Slide # 80
68402: Structural Design of Buildings II
61420: Design of Steel Structures
62323: Architectural Structures II

Design of Beam-Columns

Monther Dwaikat
Assistant Professor
Department of Building Engineering
An-Najah National University

68402 Slide # 1
Beam-Column - Outline
 Beam-Columns
 Moment Amplification Analysis
 Second Order Analysis
 Compact Sections for Beam-Columns
 Braced and Unbraced Frames
 Analysis/Design of Braced Frames
 Analysis/Design of Unbraced Frames
 Design of Bracing Elements
68402 Slide # 2
Design for Flexure – LRFD Spec.
 Commonly Used Sections:
• I – shaped members (singly- and doubly-symmetric)
• Square and Rectangular or round HSS

68402 Slide # 3
Beam-Columns

68402 Slide # 4
Beam-Columns

68402 Slide # 5
Beam-Columns

68402 Slide # 6
Beam-Columns

68402 Slide # 7
Beam-Columns

68402 Slide # 8
Beam-Columns

68402 Slide # 9
Beam-Columns
Likely failure modes due to combined bending and axial forces:
• Bending and Tension: usually fail by yielding
• Bending (uniaxial) and compression: Failure by buckling in the
plane of bending, without torsion
• Bending (strong axis) and compression: Failure by LTB
• Bending (biaxial) and compression (torsionally stiff section):
Failure by buckling in one of the principal directions.
• Bending (biaxial) and compression (thin-walled section): failure by
combined twisting and bending
• Bending (biaxial) + torsion + compression: failure by combined
twisting and bending

68402 Slide # 10
Beam-Columns
 Structural elements subjected to combined flexural moments and axial
loads are called beam-columns
 The case of beam-columns usually appears in structural frames
 The code requires that the sum of the load effects be smaller than the
resistance of the elements
 Q i i
 1 .0
R n
 Thus: a column beam interaction can be written as

Pu  M ux M uy 
    1 .0
 c Pn   b M nx  b M ny 
 This means that a column subjected to axial load and moment will be
able to carry less axial load than if no moment would exist.
68402 Slide # 11
Beam-Columns
 AISC code makes a distinct difference between lightly and heavily axial
loaded columns

Pu Pu 8  M ux M uy 
for  0 .2      1 .0
 c Pn  c Pn 9   b M nx  b M ny 
AISC Equation

Pu Pu  M ux M uy 
for  0 .2     1 .0
 c Pn 2c Pn  b M nx b M ny 

AISC Equation

68402 Slide # 12
Beam-Columns
 Definitions
Pu = factored axial compression load
Pn = nominal compressive strength
Mux = factored bending moment in the x-axis, including second-order effects
Mnx = nominal moment strength in the x-axis
Muy = same as Mux except for the y-axis
Mny = same as Mnx except for the y-axis
c = Strength reduction factor for compression members = 0.90
b = Strength reduction factor for flexural members = 0.90

68402 Slide # 13
Beam-Columns
 The increase in slope for lightly axial-loaded columns represents the less
effect of axial load compared to the heavily axial-loaded columns
Unsafe Element
Pu/cPn

Safe Element

0.2
Mu/bMn

These are design charts that are a bit conservative than behaviour envelopes
68402 Slide # 14
Moment Amplification
 When a large axial load exists, the axial load produces moments due to
any element deformation.
x
P P


M

 The final moment “M” is the sum of the original moment and the
moment due to the axial load. The moment is therefore said to be
amplified.

 As the moment depends on the load and the original moment, the
problem is nonlinear and thus it is called second-order problem.
68402 Slide # 15
Moment Amplification
Second-order Moments, Puδ and Pu

Moment amplification in column Moment amplification in

braced against sidesway unbraced column
Mu = Mnt + Puδ Mu = Mlt + Pu
68402 Slide # 16
Moment Amplification
 Using first principles we can prove that the final moment Mmax is
amplified from M0 as
 
 
M max  M 0 B  M 0  1 
  Pu  
1   
  P 
 e 
 The amplification factor B can be

 
 
 1  Where M max  bending moment
B 
  Pu  
 1    
  Pe  
68402 Slide # 17
Second Order Analysis

68402 Slide # 18
Second Order Analysis

68402 Slide # 19
Second Order Analysis

68402 Slide # 20
Second Order Analysis

68402 Slide # 21
Second Order Analysis

68402 Slide # 22
Second Order Analysis

68402 Slide # 23
Second Order Analysis

68402 Slide # 24
Compact Sections for Beam-
Columns
 The axial load affects the ratio for compactness. When the check for
compactness for the web is performed while the web is subjected to axial
load the following ratios shall be bf

tf
Pu E  2 . 75 Pu 
for
 b Py
 0 . 125  p  3 . 76 1   h
Fy   b Py  tw

Pu E  Pu  E
 0 . 125  p  1 . 12
for
 b Py  2 . 33    1 . 49
Fy   b Py  Fy

Pu E  0 . 74 Pu 
for all
 b Py
 r  5 . 70 1  
Fy   b Py 

Flange limit is E E
 p  0.38 r  0.83
similar to beams Fy Fy  68.9
68402 Slide # 25
Braced and Unbraced Frames
 Two components of amplification moments can be observed in unbraced
frames:
 Moment due to member deflection (similar to braced frames)
 Moment due to sidesway of the structure
Unbraced Frames

Member deflection Member sidesway

68402 Slide # 26
Unbraced and Braced Frames
 In braced frames amplification moments can only happens due to
member deflection
Braced Frames

Sidesway bracing system

Member deflection

68402 Slide # 27
Unbraced and Braced Frames
 The AISC code approximate the effect by using two amplification
factors B1 and B2

M u  B1 M nt  B 2 M lt AISC Equation

Pr  Pnt  B2 Plt AISC Equation

 Where
 B1 amplification factor for the moment occurring in braced member
 B2 amplification factor for the moment occurring from sidesway
 Mnt and Pnt is the maximum moment and axial force assuming no sidesway
 Mlt and Plt is the maximum moment and axial force due to sidesway
 Pr is the required axial strength

68402 Slide # 28
Unbraced and Braced Frames
 Braced frames are those frames prevented from sidesway.
 In this case the moment amplification equation can be simplified to:

M ux  B1 x M ntx M uy  B1 y M nty

Cm
B1  1 AISC Equation
 Pu 
1   
 Pe 
 EA g
2

Pe 
KL / r  2
 KL/r for the axis of bending considered
 K ≤ 1.0

68402 Slide # 29
Unbraced and Braced Frames
 The coefficient Cm is used to represent the effect of end moments on the
maximum deflection along the element (only for braced frames)
 M   When there is transverse loading on
C m  0 . 6  0 . 4  1
 the beam either of the following
 M 2  case applies

M1 M1
  ve   ve Conservatively Cm  1.00
M2 M2
68402 Slide # 30
Unbraced and Braced Frames
 AISC requires stability bracing to have
 Specific strength to resist the lateral load
 Specific axial stiffness to limit the lateral deformation.
2  Pu
Pbr  0 . 004  Pu  br 
Braced
 L Frames

3 Pu Unbraced
 br  Frames
L
 Where Pu is the sum of factored axial load in the braced story
 Pbr is bracing strength and br is braced or unbraced frame stiffness (
= 0.75)
68402 Slide # 31
Unbraced and Braced Frames
 Unbraced frames can observe loading + sidesway
 In this case the moment amplification equation can be simplified to:

BMD

M u  B1 M nt  B 2 M lt AISC Equation

1 .0 1.0
B1  1 B2 
 Pu   oh 
 Pu  1
1    RM  H  L 
 Pe  68402 Slide # 32
Unbraced and Braced Frames
 A minimum lateral load in each combination shall be added so that the
shear in each story is given by:

H u  0 . 0042  Pu

68402 Slide # 33
Analysis of Unbraced Frames
 Pu is the sum of factored axial loads on all columns in floor

 oh is the drift due to the unfactored horizontal forces

L is the story height

H story shear produced by unfactored horizontal forces

  oh 
 L  is the drift index (is generally between 1/500 to 1/200)
 
Pe is the sum of Euler buckling loads of all columns in floor

Pu is the factored axial load in the column

RM can be conservatively taken as 0.85
68402 Slide # 34
Ex. 5.1- Beam-Columns in Braced
Frames
A 3.6-m W12x96 is subjected to bending and
compressive loads in a braced frame. It is bent in
single curvature with equal and opposite end
moments and is not loaded transversely. Use Grade
50 steel. Is the section satisfactory if Pu = 3200 kN
and first-order moment Mntx = 240 kN.m

Step I: From Section Property Table

W12x96 (A = 18190 mm2, Ix = 347x106 mm4, Lp = 3.33 m, Lr
= 14.25 m, Zx = 2409 mm3, Sx = 2147 mm3)

68402 Slide # 35
Ex. 5.1- Beam-Columns in Braced
Frames
Step II: Compute amplified moment
- For a braced frame let K = 1.0
KxLx = KyLy = (1.0)(3.6) = 3.6 m
- From Column Chapter: cPn = 4831 kN
Pu/cPn = 3200/4831 = 0.662 > 0.2  Use eqn.
- There is no lateral translation of the frame: Mlt = 0
 Mux = B1Mntx

Cm = 0.6 – 0.4(M1/M2) = 0.6 – 0.4(-240/240) = 1.0

Pe1 = 2EIx/(KxLx)2 = 2(200)(347x106)/(3600)2 = 52851 kN

68402 Slide # 36
Ex. 5.1- Beam-Columns in Braced
Frames
Cm 1.0
B1    1.073  1.0 (OK )
Pu 3200
1 1
Pe1 52851
Mux = (1.073)(240) = 257.5 kN.m

Step III: Compute moment capacity

Since Lb = 3.6 m L p < L b< L r

b M n  739 kN .m

68402 Slide # 37
Ex. 5.1- Beam-Columns in Braced
Frames

Step IV: Check combined effect

Pu 8  M ux M uy  3200 8  257.5
 
      0   0.972  1.0
 
c Pn 9  b M nx b M ny  4831 9  739 

 Section is satisfactory

68402 Slide # 38
Ex. 5.2- Analysis of Beam-Column
 Check the adequacy of an ASTM A992 W14x90 column
subjected to an axial force of 2200 kN and a second
order bending moment of 400 kN.m. The column is 4.2 m
long, is bending about the strong axis. Assume:
• ky = 1.0
• Lateral unbraced length of the compression flange is 4.2 m.

68402 Slide # 39
Ex. 5.2- Analysis of Beam-Column
 Step I: Compute the capacities of the beam-column
cPn = 4577 kN Mnx = 790 kN.m
Mny = 380 kN.m

 Step II: Check combined effect

Pu 2200
  0.481  0.2
c Pn 4577
Pu 8  M ux M uy  2200 8  400
 
      0   0.931  1.0
 
c Pn 9  b M nx b M ny  4577 9  790 
OK
68402 Slide # 40
Design of Beam-Columns
 Trial-and-error procedure
• Select trial section
• Check appropriate interaction formula.
• Repeat until section is satisfactory

68402 Slide # 41
Design of Unbraced Frames
 Design can be performed using the following
procedure:
 Use a procedure similar to that of braced frames
 To start the design assume B1 = 1.0 and compute B2
by assuming the ratio
 oh 1 1
 to
L 500 200
 Compute Mu and perform same procedure used for
braced frames

68402 Slide # 42
Ex. 5.3- Analysis-External Column
• Check the exterior column of an unbraced frame shown in the
figure for the following load combination. All columns are 3.8 m
long and all beams are 9 m long. Assume A992 steel.

Load Case  1.2 D  0.5 L  1.6W

W24x76
Pnt  2250 kN Plt  0
M nt  128 kN - m
M lt  210 kN - m
W14x90
For this frame
 H  660 kN W24x76
 Pu  10800 kN
68402 Slide # 43
Ex. 5.3- Analysis-External Column
Step I: Calculate Kx and Ky
 416 
2 
GT  GB   3.8 
 2.25 W24x76
 874 
 
 9 
K x  1.66 W14x90
Effective length, Ky ,
assumed braced frame W24x76
K y  1 .0

68402 Slide # 44
Ex. 5.3- Analysis-External Column
Step II: Calculate Pn and p
K x Lx 1.66(3800)
  40.4
rx 156
K y Ly 1 3800
  40.4
ry 94
Pn  4700 kN
 M nx  797 kN.m
 M ny  380 kN.m

68402 Slide # 45
Ex. 5.3- Analysis-External Column
Step III: Determine second-order moments-No translation, Mnt

Due to lack of information, assume Cm = 1.0

 2 (200)(416 106 )
Pe1   20637 kN
1.66  3800 2

1
B1   1.12
2250
1
20637

68402 Slide # 46
Ex. 5.3- Analysis-External Column
Step IV: Determine second-order moments - Translation, Mlt.
Don’t know all columns in story, thus assume the frame will have a
deflection limit

 oh  L 400

For this frame

 H  660 kN
 Pu  10800 kN
Thus,
1
B2   1.04
10800  1 
1  
660  400 
68402 Slide # 47
Ex. 5.3- Analysis-External Column
• Step V: Second-order moment

M u  1.12(128)  1.04(210)  361.7 kN - m

 Step VI: Check combined effect

Pu 2250
  0.479  0.2
c Pn 4700
Pu 8  M ux M uy  2250 8  361.7
 
     0   0.882  1.0 OK
c Pn 9  b M nx b M ny  4700 9  797 

• Thus, the W14x90, Fy = 344 MPa will work for this loading case.
• Now it should be checked for any other load case, such as
1.2D+1.6L
68402 Slide # 48
Ex. 5.4 – Design-Beam Column
 Select a W shape of A992 steel PD = 240 kN
for the beam-column of the PL = 650 kN
following figure. This member is MD = 24.4 kN.m
ML = 66.4 kN.m
part of a braced frame and is
subjected to the service-load
axial force and bending moments
4.8 m
shown (the end shears are not
shown). Bending is about the
strong axis, and Kx = Ky = 1.0.
Lateral support is provided only at MD = 24.4 kN.m
the ends. Assume that B1 = 1.0. ML = 66.4 kN.m

68402 Slide # 49
Ex. 5.4 – Design-Beam Column
 Step I: Compute the factored axial load and bending moments
Pu = 1.2PD + 1.6PL = 1.2(240)+ 1.6(650) = 1328 kN.
Mntx = 1.2MD + 1.6ML = 1.2(24.4)+ 1.6(66.4) = 135.5 kN.m.
B1 = 1.0  Mux = B1Mntx = 1.0(135.5) = 135.5 kN.m

 Step II: compute Mnx, Pn

• The effective length for compression and the unbraced length for
bending are the same = KL = Lb = 4.8 m.
• The bending is uniform over the unbraced length , so Cb=1.0
• Try a W10X60 with Pn = 2369 kN and Mnx = 344 kN.m

68402 Slide # 50
Ex. 5.4 – Design-Beam Column
 Step III: Check interaction equation
Pu 1328
  0.56  0.2
c Pn 2369
Pu 8  M ux M uy  1328 8  135.5
 
     0   0.91  1.0 OK
c Pn 9  b M nx b M ny  2369 9  344 

 Step IV: Make sure that this is the lightest possible section.
 Try W12x58 with Pn = 2247 kN and Mnx = 386 kN.m

Pu 1328
  0.59  0.2
c Pn 2247
Pu 8  M ux M uy  1328 8  135.5
 
     0   0.90  1.0
c Pn 9  b M nx b M ny  2247 9  386 
 Use a W12 x 58 section
68402 Slide # 51