L __ T__ N T __ U __ C __ I __ N

__ A __ I __ E __ T F __ N __ T __ O __
F __ M __ L __
__ D __ C __ T __ O __
G __ V __ R __ M __ N __
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences

➢Structural Functionalism
➢Institutionalism
➢Symbolic Interactionism
❑ Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC)
• Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science
theories:
• a. Structural Functionalism
• b. Institutionalism
• C. Symbolic Interactionism
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences

• Macrolevel approaches use the social aggregate as the

level of analysis, while microlevel approaches use the
individual as the level of analysis.
• Macrolevel approaches focus on the social structure,
social institutions and economic change.
• Microlevel approaches focus on social interactions,
individuals and/or groups interact in the way they do,
and how they interpret the meanings of their own
interactions.
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences
➢ Structural functionalism is "a framework for building a theory that sees
society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability" (Macionis 2007, 15). Such parts of the whole
system may vary in terms of functions, but they are all related to each
other. Interdependent as they are, they all have one goal and that is to
maintain or keep the whole system, at least in its present form. It follows
therefore that the working of one part would have effects on the other
parts.
➢ Structural functionalism was developed by Talcott Parsons in the1930s
under the influence of the works of Max Weber and Emile Durkheim
(McMahon 2015). It emphasizes social structure, "any relatively stable
pattern of social behavior" and social functions, "the consequences of
any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole" (Macionis
2007, 15). Examples of social structure are the family, government,
religion, education, and economy. Social structure shapes our lives in
various contexts such as the family, the workplace, classroom, and
community; and all social structure functions to keep society going, at
least in its present form (Macionis 2007).
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences
➢ Talcott Parsons - 13 December 1902 – 8 May 1979
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences
➢ Robert Merton (1910—2003) expanded the concept of social function by
arguing that any social structure may have many functions. He
distinguished between manifest functions, "the recognized and intended
consequences of any social pattern" and latent functions, the
unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern."
(Macionis 2007, 15).
➢ Higher education, for instance, can be seen with both manifest and latent
functions. The manifest function of higher education is to provide the
youth with the information and skills needed to enable them to perform
their jobs after graduation. By keeping millions of young people out of
the labor market, where a significant number of them may not get hired
right away after graduation, serves as the latent function of higher
education. As a "marriage broker", that is, bringing together peoples of
similar social backgrounds is an equally important, yet not often
recognized latent function of higher education (Macionis 2007, 16).
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences
➢Robert Merton - July 31, 1944 –present
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences
➢In his classification of social functions into manifest or latent
recognized that the effects or outcomes of social structure are
necessarily good and not necessarily good for everyone. He coined
the term "social dysfunction." A social dysfunction is "any social
pattern that disrupt the operation of society" (Macionis 2007, 16).
➢What causes social dysfunction? The lack of consensus among in a
given polity or society about what is helpful or harmful to society is a
key feature of every society or polity. Differences in backgrounds for
instance, may lead to differences in recognition and appreciation of
what is functional or not to particular individuals or groups of
people. In a capitalist order, for example, high profits for factory
owners can be seen as dysfunctional for factory workers as they
receive low wages (Macionis 2007, 16)
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences
The structural-functional approach built on the following premises:
I . Within every social structure or system—politics, family, organizations - each member of
the system has a specific function.
2. Those functions can be small or substantial, are dynamic in nature (I.e.. they can
change), and work toward the same purpose: to keep the system operational within its
environment.
3. Change is evident within any society or system; however, for the system to survive, it
must adapt to that change in order to maintain Its equilibrium (McMahon 2015).
To maintain the equilibrium of the system, Parsons identified four imperatives for societies
to survive, which he called the AGIL model, the acronym stands lor the first letter of each
of these four imperatives. These are
• Adaptation: acquiring and mobilizing sufficient resources so that the system can survive,
• Goal Attainment: setting and implementing goals
• Integration: maintaining solidarity or coordination among the subunits of the system
• Latency: creating, preserving, and transmitting the system’s distinctive culture and values
(McMahon 2015 Emphasis added),
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences
➢Structural functionalism was under sustained criticisms in the 1960s
such that by the 1970S, it has lost Its credibility (McMahon 2015) A
generalized criticism of structural functionalism was aimed at the
theory’s of explanation for social conflict or social change in addition
to its ‘’bias of political conservatism’’ (Smelser 1990 in McMahon
2015).
➢In more specific terms, structural functionalism was criticized for
being unable to explain phenomena such as social change,
disagreement with social and political aims, and the influential
underpinnings of the wealthy. Moreover, structural functionalism's
qualitative methodology, its emphasis on the general rather than the
specific, and its non inclusion of psychology in the discussion of
human behavior came also under attack from social scientists
(McMahon 2015).
 Macrolevel Approaches in the Social Sciences
➢ Critics argue that structural functionalism's focus on social stability
and social order ignore inequalities of social class, race, and gender
which cause tension and conflict in the society (Macionis 2017).
Feminists, in particular, are critical of structural functionalism due to
the theory's gender-blindness to the historical contributions of
women (McMahon 2015). Others find the focus on stability and
order at the expense of conflict of structural functionalism as
somewhat conservative (Macionis 2017) and less likely to produce
cumulative and generalizable knowledge.
➢ In response to these criticisms, some social scientists revert to
structural functionalism as it offers a valid explanation of consensus,
which supports the concept of social order (McMahon 2015). Others
made a critical response. They developed the social-conflict
approach (Macionis 2017). In the social sciences, Marxism is an
example of this social-conflict approach in the social sciences.
 Institutionalism
➢ The study of political institutions was dominant within
political science in Britain and the US in the early twentieth
century. Until the 1950s, institutionalism enjoyed a
privileged status within the discipline—its assumptions and
practices as well as its methodological and theoretical
premises were rarely questioned, let alone subject to the
behavioralist critique (Lowndes 2002).
➢ The institutional approach can be understood as a subject
matter, as a method, and as a theory. As a subject matter,
the study of political institutions is central to the identity of
the discipline of political science (Rhodes 1995).
 Institutionalism
➢Institutionalism is defined as an approach or a perspective that
studies formal and informal institutions and how they affect society.
It studies and views an institution as a set of established laws,
customs, and practices that manifests its existence in society through
power relations, influence, coercion, or even physical structures. The
family is an example of an institution because it is an established
unit with its own set of laws and power relations and is also capable
of exerting influence over the developing child.
➢Institutions can be grouped into two, namely—formal and informal
institutions. Institutionalists define formal institutions as institutions
that can be found in the realm of governance and economics. These
institutions are established by a certain authority such as the
government that legitimizes the enactment of certain codified laws
in society.
 Institutionalism
➢Informal institutions are set of norms, customs, or practices that are
usually seen and experienced in everyday and mundane activities of
people. We are not entirely aware of their existence and their
influence in our lives, but we unconsciously abide by them as they
guide our daily routine. Informal institutions are socially shared, and
we learn about them through social interactions. An example of an
informal institution is the unwritten social protocol of respecting
elders that people have to follow.
➢Thus, it is the central assumption of institutionalists that society is
made up of various formal and informal institutions that guide and
influence our behavior. Institutions are important socio-cultural
building blocks of society because they influence human behavior
and create and maintain order in human interactions and
communities.
 Institutionalism
➢To quote Rhodes (1995, 43), "If there is any subject matter at all that
political scientists can claim exclusively for their own, a subject
matter that does not require acquisition of the analytical tools of
sister fields and that sustains their claim to autonomous existence, it
is, of course, formal-legal political structure."
➢Public administration, a subdiscipline within political science, has the
study of institutions as its key characteristic. Public administration is
the study of "the institutional arrangements for the provision of
public services" (Hood 1987, 504, in Rhodes 1995, 52) or ‘’the study
of public bureaucracies" (Rhodes 1979, 7, in Rhodes 1995, 52).
William Robson (1975, 195, in Rhodes 1995, 52) describes the
dominant approach in public administration as institutional:
 Institutionalism
➢ It concentrated attention on the authorities engaged in public
administration, analyzed their history, structure, functions, powers, and
relationships. It enquired how they worked and the degree of
effectiveness they achieved.
➢ As a method, the traditional or classic institutional approach is
"descriptive - inductive, formal-legal, and historical-comparative." It is
descriptive because it employs the techniques of the historian and
explores specific events, eras, people, and institutions and inductive
because inferences are drawn from repeated observations (Rhodes 1995,
43).
➢ As such, the classic institutional approach systematically describes and
analyzes phenomena that have occurred in the past and explain
contemporary political phenomena with reference to past events. The
goal is to explain and understand but not to formulate laws (Kavanagh
1991 , 482, in Rhodes 1995, 42).
 Institutionalism
➢ The institutional approach also applies the formal-legal inquiry. Formal
because it involves the study of formal governmental organizations, and
legal because it includes the study of public law (Eckstein 1979, 2, in
Rhodes 1995, 44). An example of formal-legal methods in the study of
political institutions is constitutional studies (Rhodes 1995).
➢ The classic or traditional institutional approach is also comparative.
➢ Woodrow Wilson (1989, xxxiv, in Rhodes 1995, 45) argued that one's
"institutions can be understood and appreciated only by those who know
other systems of government . . . By the use of a thorough comparative
and historical method a general clarification of views may be obtained."
➢ As a theory, the classic or traditional institutional approach does not only
make statements about the causes and consequences of political
institutions. It also espouses the political value of democracy (Rhodes
1995).
 Institutionalism
➢Proponents of the approach treat the functioning and fate of
democracies (dependent variable) as a function of, or influenced by
legal rules and procedures (independent variable). Moreover, the
approach offers opportunity for infusing into the empirical study of
politics the analysis political values (Rhodes 1995). Influenced by the
political philosophy Michael Oakeshott, Johnson (1975, 276-7, in
Rhodes 1995, 47) the rationale for the study of political institutions
in the following manner:
➢political institutions express particular choices about how political
relationships ought to be shaped; they are in the nature of
continuing injunctions to members of a society that they should try
to conduct themselves in specific ways when engaged in the pursuit
of political ends. This is to define political institutions as necessarily
containing normative element.
 Institutionalism
➢Critics to the classic or traditional approach attack the
approach’s limitation both in terms of scope and
method. Peters (1999, 6-11, in Lowndes 2002, 92)
describes the "proto-theory" of the traditional
approach as "normative (concerned with 'good
government'), structuralist (structures determine
political behavior), historicist(the central influence of
history), legalist (law plays a major role in governing)
and holistic (concerned with describing and comparing
whole systems of government)" (Lowndes 2002, 92).
 Institutionalism
➢Similarly, Roy Macridis, a comparativist in political science,
critiques the approach's subject matter and method while
focusing on the study of comparative government. He
claims that, comparative government was "excessively
formalistic in its approach to political institutions," did not
have a sophisticated awareness of the informal
arrangements of society and of their role in the formation
of decisions and the exercise of power"; was "insensitive to
the nonpolitical determinants of political behavior"; was
"descriptive rather than problem-solving, or analytic in its
method"; was insensitive to hypotheses and their
verification; and therefore, was unable to formulate a
comparative "political theory of dynamics" (Macridis 1963,
47—8, in Rhodes 1995, 48).
 Institutionalism
➢The historical methods and legal analysis of the classic institutional
approach are inadequate. Historical methods cannot explain
systematically the structure and behavior of governments due to its
focus on the unique, The gap between the formal statements of the
law and the practice of government renders legal analysis ineffective
(Rhodes 1995).
➢David Easton, the most influential critic of the traditional study of
politics found the classic institutional approach wanting on two
grounds.
➢First, the analysis of law and institutions could not explain policy or
power because it did not cover all the relevant variables (Easton 1971'
ch. 6)
➢Second, "hyperfactualism," or "reverence for the fact" (75), meant that
political scientists suffered from "theoretical malnutrition" (77)
neglecting "the general framework within which these facts could
acquire meaning" (89) (Rhodes 1995, 49).
 Institutionalism
➢ Other critics noted that the approach was concerned with the institutions of
government, and yet operated with a restricted understanding of its subject
matter. Its focus was on formal rules and organizations rather than informal
conventions and on official structures of government rather than broader
institutional constraints on governance (within and outside of the state
(Lowndes 2002).
➢ By the 1980s, the traditional or classic institutional approach has declined in its
importance in political science. March and Olsen (1984, 734 in Lowndes 2002,
94, and Rhodes 1995, 53) coined the term "new institutionalism" critiquing the
traditional or classic institutional approach as having ".'receded in importance
from the position they held in the earlier theories of political scientists."
Asserting that political institutions played a more autonomous role in shaping
political outcome, they make claims that:
➢ The bureaucratic agency, the legislative committee, and the appellate court are
arenas for contending social forces, but they are also collections of standard
operating procedures and structures that define and defend interests. They are
political actors in their own right (March and Olsen 1984, 738, in Lowndes
2002, 94, and Rhodes 1995, 53).
 Institutionalism
➢In contrast to the traditional or classic institutional approach, now
referred to as the "old institutionalism," new institutionalism has a
much broader, yet sophisticated definition of its subject matter.
➢Political institutions are no longer equated with political
organizations: 'institution' is understood more broadly to refer to a
'stable, recurring pattern of behavior (Goodin 1996, 22). The new
institutionalists are concerned with the informal conventions of
political life as well as with formal constitutional and organizational
structures. New attention is paid to the way in which institutions
embody values and power relationships, and to the obstacles as well
as the opportunities that confront institutional design. Crucially, new
institutionalists concern themselves not just with the impact of
institutions upon individuals, but with the interaction between
institutions and individuals (Lowndes 2002, 91
 Institutionalism
➢New institutionalists argue that institutions do matter. In their
seminal article on new institutionalism, March and Olsen (1984)
emphasized the central value of institutions vis-a-vis individual
choices in explaining political phenomena. They argue that political
behavior is "embedded in an institutional structure of rules, norms,
expectations and traditions that several limited the free play of
individual will and calculation" (March and Olsen 1984, 7 Burnham
et al., (2004, 18) captures it succinctly: "political phenomena not be
simply reduced to the aggregate consequences of individual
behavior,’’ rather, 'the choices that people make are to a significant
extent shaped the institutions within which they operate."
➢There are several variants of new institutionalism reflecting the
divide between "normative" approaches and a new, more
sophisticated version of rational choice.
 Institutionalism
➢ Normative institutionalism argues that political institutions influence
actors' behavior by shaping their "values, norms, interests, identities and
beliefs" (March and Olsen 1989, 17). Hence "normative" refers concern
with norms and values as explanatory variables (owing much to the
traditions of sociological institutionalism), and not to 'normative theory'
in the sense of promoting particular norms.
➢ Rational choice institutionalism denies that institutional factors "produce
behavior" or shape individuals' preferences, which they see as
endogenously determined and relatively stable (favoring utility
maximization). Political institutions influence behavior by affecting 'the
structure of a situation" in which individuals select strategies for the
pursuit of their preferences (Ostrom 1982, 5—7). Institutions provide
information about others' likely future behavior, and about incentives
(and disincentives) attached to different courses of action (Lowndes 2002,
95).
 Student Body - Mini Task
Instruction: Think about your Student Council at your
school or university. Your task is to identify at least three
manifest (recognized and intended consequences) and
three latent (unrecognized and unintended
consequences) functions of your student government.
Once you have identified these functions, you are
required to identify social dysfunctions, anything that
you think may disrupt the organization and processes of
your Student Council. These social dysfunctions may be
independent or dependent on the manifest and latent
functions identified.
 Student Body - Mini Task
Manifest Functions of the Student Latent Functions of the Student Council Social Dysfunctions to the Student
Council Council

Processing Questions Was it difficult to identify functions and dysfunctions of your Student Council? Why
or why not?

Base on your answers, do you think that change is needed in your Student Council?
In what aspects and towards what directions?
 Student’s Exploration

➢Identify the various formal and informal

institutions found in your school or in your
community.
➢How are these institutions instrumental in
creating and maintaining order in your society?
➢Are these institutions effective in guiding the
behavior of people in your community?