DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

Durability refers to the ability of concrete to resist weathering action,

chemical attack, abrasion or any other process of deterioration, while
maintaining its desired engineering properties. It normally refers to the
duration or life span of trouble-free performance. Different concretes require
different degrees of durability depending on the exposure environment and
properties desired. For example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will
have different requirements than indoor concrete.

Concrete will remain durable if:

 The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability

 Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw
cycle.
 It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
 The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis,
Chlorides, sulphates and silt.

Concrete is subjected to a host of durability problems, which typically result

in:

 Progressive loss of mass from the surface

 Volume changes, which can be of three types:

(1) both paste and aggregate expand,

(2) the paste expands, while the aggregate is

inert, or
 (3) only the aggregate expands; also, cracking can

be caused due to volume expansions of the

reinforcing steel upon its corrosion

Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete

Durability of Concrete depends upon the following factors:

 Exposure conditions
Mild : Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive
conditions, except those situated in coastal area.
Moderate : Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing
whilst wet. Concrete exposed to condensation and rain. Concrete
continuously under water. Concrete in contact or buried under
nonaggressive soil/ground water. Concrete surfaces sheltered from
saturated salt air in coastal area.
Aggressive : Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate
wetting and drying or occasional freezing whilst wet or severe
condensation. Concrete completely immersed in sea water. Concrete
exposed to coastal environment.
Severe : Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive
fumes or severe freezing conditions whilst wet. Concrete in contact
with or buried under aggressive subsoil/ground water
Extreme : Surface of members in tidal zone Members in direct contact
with liquid/ solid aggressive chemicals
 Cement content
 Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and
bleeding. If cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability
will be reduced leading to inadequate compaction. However, if water is
added to improve workability, water / cement ratio increases and
resulting in highly permeable material.

 Compaction

The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate

compaction. Usually it is being governed by the compaction equipments
used, type of formworks, and density of the steelwork

 Curing

It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture

retention and to ensure hydration process occur completely

 Cover

Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes

 Water cement ratio

For a durable concrete, use of lowest w/c ratio is the fundamental

requirement to produce dense and impermeable concrete. It has been
found through experiments that low w/c ratio concrete are less sensitive
to carbonation, external chemical attack and other effects that cause lack
of durability of concrete. It has been reported that it become impossible to
corrode unprotected steel reinforcement in accelerated corrosion test of
a concrete with very low w/c ratio.
  Permeability

It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed

that higher permeability is usually caused by higher porosity .Therefore,
a proper curing, sufficient cement, proper compaction and suitable
concrete cover could provide a low permeability concrete

Types of Durability of Concrete

There are many types but the major Concrete Durability types are:

1. Physical durability

2. Chemical durability

Physical Durability

Physical durability is against the following actions

1. Freezing and thawing action

2. Percolation / Permeability of water

3. Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration

Chemical Durability

Chemical durability is against the following actions

1. Alkali Aggregate Reaction

2. Sulphate Attack

3. Chloride Ingress
 4. Delay Ettringite Formation

5. Corrosion of reinforcement

Causes for the Lack of Durability in Concrete

1. External Causes:

a. Extreme Weathering Conditions

b. Extreme Temperature

c. Extreme Humidity

d. Abrasion

e. Electrolytic Action

f. Attack by a natural or industrial liquids or gases

2. Internal Causes

a) Physical

 Volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregates

and cement paste

 Frost Action

b) Chemical

 Alkali Aggregate Reactions

i. Alkali Silica Reaction

ii. Alkali Silicate Reaction

iii. Alkali Carbonate Reaction

 Corrosion of Steel

All durability problems in concrete start due to some external agents getting
access into the inside of concrete and react physically/ chemically with the
constituents of concrete. Concrete is inherently a porous media with
interconnected pore system. This provides a easy path for the entry of
external agents. Thus concrete permeability depends on its pore structure.
even the best of concrete is not gas-tight or watertight unless the pores are
closed. The capillary pore structure of concrete allows water to penetrate at
a slow rate.

Reinforcement corrosion

Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical process. When there is

a difference in electrical potential along the steel reinforcement in concrete,
an electrochemical cell is set up. In the steel, one part becomes anode and
other part becomes cathode connected by electrolyte in the form of pore
water in the hardened cement paste. The positively charged ferrous ions
Fe++ at the anode pass into solution while the negatively charged free
electrons e– pass through the steel into cathode where they are absorbed
by the constituents of the electrolyte and combine with water and oxygen to
form hydroxyl ions (OH)–. These travel through the electrolyte and combine
with the ferrous ions to form ferric hydroxide which is converted by further
oxidation to rust.

The reactions are described below

Anodic reactions

Fe  Fe++ + 2e–

Fe++ + 2(OH)–  Fe(OH)2 (Ferrous hydroxide)

4 Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2  4Fe(OH)3 (Ferric oxide)

Cathodic reaction

4e– + O2 + H2O  4(OH)–

No corrosion takes place if the concrete is dry or probably below relative

humidity of 60 percent because enough water is not there to promote
corrosion. It can also be noted that corrosion does not take place if
concrete is fully immersed in water because diffusion of oxygen does not
take place into the concrete. Probably the optimum relative humidity for
corrosion is 70 to 80 per cent. The products of corrosion occupy a volume
as many as six times the original volume of steel depending upon the
oxidation state.

Corrosion Control

good quality of concrete through good construction practices. It is a very vast

subject touches the fundamentals of choosing constituent material and good
rules to be followed during various stages of production of concrete. In
particular the use of lowest possible water/cement ratio having regard to
workability

Proper mix design, use of right quality and quantity of cement for different
exposure conditions is to be adopted.

Use of supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash, ground

granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume etc

Measures to control the corrosion of steel reinforcement.

 Metallurgical methods
 Corrosion inhibitors
 Coatings to reinforcement
 Cathodic protection
 Coatings to concrete
 Design and detailing

Metallurgical Methods:

Steel can be made more corrosion resistant by altering its structure through
metallurgical processes. Different methods such as rapid quenching of the
hot bars by series of water jets, or by keeping the hot steel bars for a short
time in a water bath, and by such other process the mechanical properties
and corrosion resistance property of steel can be improved.

Corrosion inhibitors:

Corrosion can be prevented or delayed by chemical method by using certain

corrosion inhibiting chemicals such as nitrites, phosphates, benzoates etc.

In the high pH of concrete, the steel is protected by a passivating layer of

ferric oxide on the surface of steel. However, the passivating layer also
contain some ferrous oxide which can initiate corrosion when the chloride
ions reach the steel. The nitrite ions present in the corrosion inhibiting
admixture will oxidise the ferrous oxide to ferric oxide, thus stabalising the
passivating layer even in the presence of chlorides.

Coatings to reinforcement:

The object of coating to steel bar is to provide a durable barrier to aggressive

materials, such as chlorides. The coatings should be robust to withstand
fabrication of reinforcement cage, and pouring of concrete and compaction
by vibrating needle.

Simple cement slurry coating is a cheap method for temporary protection

against rusting of reinforcement in storage.

Coatings to Concrete:

In addition to the coating of reinforcement by appropriate material, a surface

coating to the concrete member is given to increase the durability further.
The coatings serve the dual purpose of protection and decoration. the
protective coating should be based on acrylics which retains the breathing
property of concrete, while protecting the concrete from other harmful
environmental agencies, in particular entry of water and carbonation.

Design and Detailing

The structural designer should take all precautions in designing and

detailing, with respect to spacing between bars for the concrete to flow
between reinforcements, to facilitate vibration of concrete, to give proper
cover to the steel reinforcements, to restrict the crack width etc.

FIRE RESISTANCE

Concrete, though not a refractory material, is incombustible and has good

fire-resistant properties.

Fire resistance of concrete structure is determined by three main factors

 the capacity of the concrete itself to withstand heat and the subsequent
action of water without losing strength unduly without cracking or
spalling
 the conductivity of the concrete to heat
 coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete

In the case of reinforced concrete, the fire resistance is not only dependent
upon the type of concrete but also on the thickness of cover to reinforcement,
The fire introduces high temperature gradients and as a result of it, the
surface layers tend to separate and spall off from the cooler interior.
The effect of increase in temperature on the strength of concrete is not much
upto a temperature of about 250°C but above 300°C, definite loss of strength
takes place. Hydrated hardened concrete contains a considerable proportion
of free calcium hydroxide which loses its water above 400°C leaving calcium
oxide. If this calcium oxide gets wetted or is exposed to moist air, rehydrates
to calcium hydroxide accompanied by an expansion in volume. This
expansion disrupts the concrete. Portland blast furnace slag cement is found
to be more resistant to the action of fire in this regard.

In mortar and concrete, the aggregates undergo a progressive expansion on

heating while the hydrated products of the set cement, beyond the point of
maximum expansion, shrinks. These two opposing actions progressively
weaken and crack the concrete. The various aggregates used differ
considerably in their behaviour on heating. The best fire resistant
aggregates, amongst the igneous rocks are, the basalts and dolerites. best
fire resistant aggregate is blast furnace slag aggregate. Broken bricks also
form a good aggregate in respect of fire resistance.

Freezing and Thawing

The lack of durability of concrete on account of freezing and thawing action

of frost is not of great importance to Indian conditions. But it is of greatest
considerations in most part of the world. However, certain regions in India,
experience sub-zero temperatures in winter.

The concrete structures particularly, the one which are exposed to

atmosphere are subjected to cycles of freezing and thawing and as such
suffer from the damaging action of frost. The frost action is one of the most
powerful weathering action on the durability of concrete. In the extreme
conditions, the life span of concrete can be reduced to just a couple of years.

fresh concrete should not be subjected to freezing temperature.

Fresh concrete contains a considerable quantity of free water; if this free

water is subjected to freezing temperature discrete ice lenses are formed.
Water expands about 9% in volume during freezing. The formation of ice
lenses formed in the body of fresh concrete disrupt the fresh concrete
causing nearly permanent damage to concrete. The fresh concrete once
subjected to frost action, will not recover the structural integrity. The
hardening concrete also should not be subjected to an extremely low
temperature.

The strength of concrete should be more than the stress to which it is

subjected at any point of time to withstand the damaging action. The fully
hardened concrete is also vulnerable to forst damage, particularly to the
effect of alternate cycles of freezing and thawing. The severest conditions
for frost action arise when concrete has more than one face exposed to the
weather and is in such a position that it remains wet for a long period.
Examples are road kerbs, parapets, concrete members in hydraulic
structures just above water level etc.

Theories of damage

 empty space available being insufficient to accommodate the

additional
  solid produced when the free water held in concrete freezes. The
damage is related to the degree of saturation.
 production of pressure due to the growth of ice lenses parallel to the
surface of the concrete owing to the migration of water from capillaries
where the freezing point is depressed.
 failure to generation of water pressure within the capillary cavities as
the ice crystals grow. This hydraulic pressure can only be delivered by
flow of water in other spaces, since the ice formed on the surface seals
the exterior and the pressure generated forces the water through the
fine capillaries. The local pressure so generated eventually exceeds
the tensile strength of the concrete and causes breakdown.

In all these theories, the permeability, rate of absorption and degree of

saturation of the concrete are all important factors.

Assessment of frost damage

The frost damage can be assessed in several ways. Assessment of loss of

weight of a sample of concrete subjected to a certain number of cycles of
freezing and thawing is one of the methods. Measuring the change in the
ultrasonic pulse-velocity or the change in the dynamic modulus of elasticity
of specimen is another method. The resistance of the concrete to freezing
and thawing is also measured by the durability factor. Blanks defined the
durability factor as the “Number of cycles of freezing and thawing to produce
failure divided by one hundred”
SULPHATE ATTACK

Most soils contain some sulphate in the form of calcium, sodium, potassium
and magnesium. They occur in soil or ground water. Because of solubility of
calcium sulphate is low, ground waters contain more of other sulphates and
less of calcium sulphate. Ammonium sulphate is frequently present in
agricultural soil and water from the use of fertilizers or from sewage and
industrial effluents.

Decay of organic matters in marshy land, shallow lakes often leads to the
formation of H2S, which can be transformed into sulphuric acid by bacterial
action. Water used in concrete cooling towers can also be a potential source
of sulphate attack on concrete. Therefore sulphate attack is a common
occurrence in natural or industrial situations.

Solid sulphates do not attack the concrete severely but when the chemicals
are in solution, they find entry into porous concrete and react with the
hydrated cement products. Of all the sulphates, magnesium sulphate causes
maximum damage to concrete. A characteristic whitish appearance is the
indication of sulphate attack. In the hardened concrete, calcium aluminate
hydrate (C-A-H) can react with sulphate salt from outside. The product of
reaction is calcium sulphoaluminate, forming within the framework of
hydrated cement paste. Because of the increase in volume of the solid phase
which can go up to 227 per cent, a gradual disintegration of concrete takes
place.
The reactions of the various sulphates with hardened cement paste is shown
below

Let us take the example of Sodium Sulphate attacking Ca(OH)2

Ca(OH)2 + Na2SO4 . 10H2O  CaSO4 . 2H2O + 2NaOH + 8H2O.

The reaction with calcium aluminate hydrate is as follows

2(3CaO . Al2O3 . 12H2O) + 3(Na2SO4 . 10H2O) 

3CaO . Al2O3 . 3CaSO4 . 31H2O + 2Al(OH)3 + 6NaOH + 17 H2O

The rate of sulphate attack increases with the increase in the strength of
solution. A saturated solution of magnesium sulphate can cause serious
damage to concrete with higher water cement ratio in a short time. However,
if the concrete is made with low water cement ratio, the concrete can
withstand the action of magnesium sulphate for 2 or 3 years.

Another factor influencing the rate of attack is the speed in which the
sulphate gone into the reaction is replenished. For this it can be seen that
when the concrete is subjected to thepressure of sulphate bearing water on
one side the rate of attack is highest. Similarly, alternate wetting and drying
due to tidal variation or spraying leads to rapid attack.
Methods of Controlling Sulphate Attack

(a) Use of Sulphate Resisting Cement

The most efficient method of resisting the sulphate attack is to use cement
with the low C3A content. In general, it has been found that a C3 A content
of 7% gives a rough division between cements of good and poor
performance in sulphate waters.

(b) Quality Concrete

A well designed, placed and compacted concrete which is dense and

impermeable exhibits a higher resistance to sulphate attack. Similarly, a
concrete with low water/cement ratio also demonstrates a higher resistance
to sulphate attack.

(c) Use of air-entrainment

Use of air-entrainment to the extent of about 6% (six per cent) has beneficial
effect on the sulphate resisting qualities of concrete. The beneficial effect is
possibly due to reduction of segregation, improvement in workability,
reduction in bleeding and in general better impermeability of concrete.

(d) Use of pozzolana

Incorporation of or replacing a part of cement by a pozzolanic material

reduces the sulphate attack. Admixing of pozzolana converts the leachable
calcium hydroxide into insoluble non-leachable cementitious product. This
pozzolanic action is responsible for
impermeability of concrete. Secondly, the removal of calcium hydroxide
reduces the susceptibility of concrete to attack by magnesium sulphate.

(e) High Pressure Steam Curing

High pressure steam curing improve the resistance of concrete to sulphate

attack. This improvement is due to the change of C3AH6 into a less reactive
phase and also to the removal or reduction of calcium hydroxide by the
reaction of silica which is invariably mixed when high pressure steam curing
method is adopted.

(f) Use of High Alumina Cement

The cause of great resistance shown by high alumina cement to the action
of sulphate is still not fully understood. However, it is attributed in part to the
absence of any free calcium hydroxide in the set cement, in contrast to
Portland cement. High alumina cement contains approximately 40%
alumina, a compound very susceptible to sulphate attack, when in normal
portland cement. But this percentage of alumina present in high alumina
cement behaves in a different way. The primary cause of resistance is
attributed to formation of protective films which inhibit the penetration or
diffusion of sulphate ions into the interior.

CONCRETE IN SEA WATER

The coastal and offshore structures are exposed to simultaneous action of a

number of physical and chemical deterioration process. The concrete in sea
water is subjected to chloride induced corrosion of steel, freezing and
thawing, salt weathering, abrasion by sand held in water and other floating
bodies.

It is commonly observed that deterioration of concrete in sea water is often

not characterised by the expansion found in concrete exposed to sulphate
action, but takes more the form of erosion or loss of constituents from the
parent mass without exhibiting undue expansion. It is inferred that the
presence of chlorides in sea water may have retarded the swelling of
concrete in sulphate solution.

Both calcium hydroxide and calcium sulphate are considerably more soluble
in sea water and this, will result in increased leaching action. To put it briefly,
concrete undergoes several reactions concurrently when subjected to sea
water. A concrete of not too massive dimensions exposed to sea water is
more likely to show the effects of leaching than expansion, whereas massive
structures like dock walls etc. may show the effects of expansion also. The
rate of chemical attack is increased in temperate zones.

Most severe attack of sea water on concrete occurs just above the level of
high water. The portion between low and high water marks is less affected
and the parts below the water level which are continuously remain immersed
are least affected.

The crystallisation of salt in the portion of concrete above high water level is
responsible for disruption of concrete. In place of cold climatic region, the
freezing of water in pores at the spray level of concrete is responsible for
causing lack of durability in concrete. Freezing of water may also take place
between the tidal variation level.

The water that permeates into the concrete causes corrosion of steel. The
product of corrosion being of higher volume than the material they replace,
exert pressure which results in lack of durability to reinforced concrete.

Sea water holds certain quantity of sand and silt particularly in the shallow
end. The velocity of wave action causes abrasion of concrete. The impact
and the mechanical force of wave action also contributes to the lack of
durability of concrete.

Steps to improve durability of concrete

 Cement with low C3A content

  Use of rich concrete with low water/cement ratio. The rich concrete with
low water/cement ratio mainly makes the concrete impervious to the
attack of sea water, and also having very little capillary pores does not
hold water, to cause expansion either by freezing or by crystallisation
of salt.
 Provision of adequate cover is another desirable step for increasing
durability of reinforced concrete.
 Use of pozzolanic material is yet another desirable step that could be
taken to improve durability against sea water.
 A good compaction, well made construction joints etc. are other points
helping the durability of concrete in sea water.
 High pressure steam-cured prefabricated concrete elements should be
used for better durability.

ALKALI-SILICA REACTION

It is basically a chemical reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the pore water
within concrete and certain types of rock minerals which sometimes occur
as part of aggregates. The reaction produces alkali-silica gel of unlimited
swelling type under favourable conditions of moisture and temperature, in
voids and cracks and further it causes disruption and pattern cracking.
Alkali-silica reaction is a reaction between alkali hydroxides and free silica in
aggregate form a alkali-silica gel.
SiO2 + 2NaOH + H2O Na2SiO3 x 2H2O
It is to be pointed out that alkali-silica reaction takes place only at high
concentrations of OH–, that is at high pH value in the pore water. The pH of
the pore water depends on the alkali content of cement.
High alkali cement may lead to a pH of about 13.5 to 13.9 and low alkali
cement results in a pH of about 12.7 to 13.1.
An increase in pH of 1.0 represents a ten fold increase in hydrogen ion
concentration. Therefore low alkali cement which produces low pH value in
the pore water is safe against potentially reactive aggregate.
Alkalis not only comes from cement but also comes from sand containing
sodium chloride, admixtures, mixing water, sea water penetration, fly ash,
blast furnace slag and deicing salt getting into concrete. Alkalis from all these
sources must be included in finding the total alkalis.
Factors Promoting the Alkali-Aggreate Reaction
(i ) Reactive type of aggregate; (ii ) High alkali content in cement;
(iii ) Availability of moisture; (iv ) Optimum temperature conditions.