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10/JWCL339:BUDHU:203/Ch-06

126 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

However, the discharge is not very sensitive to the accuracy of R because the changes in ln (Rr) are
small for large changes in (Rr). The accuracy of R has significant impact for drawdown near existing
buildings. For closely spaced wellpoints, a two-dimensional flow analysis (Chapter 14) is required.

EXAMPLE 6.9 Interpretation of Wellpoint Data

A wellpoint of 0.1 m radius in a permeable soil layer 7 m thick has a constant discharge of 0.05 m3/s in a 24-hour
operation. The soil parameters are k 5 0.004 m/s and e 5 0.5. Determine the radius of influence and the maximum
drawdown.

Strategy Use Kozeny’s (1933) equation for R and then use Equation (6.29) to calculate dmax.

Solution 6.9
Step 1: Calculate R.
e 0.5
n 5 5 5 0.33
11e 1 1 0.5

t qw k 24 3 3600 0.05 3 0.004

R5 12 5 R 5 12 5 158.3 m
Å nÄ p Å 0.33 Ä p

Compare R using Slichter’s equation.

R 5 3000dmax"k 5 3000 3 2.56"0.004 5 485.7 m

The value of dmax was inserted from Step 2.

Step 2: Calculate dmax.

R 158.3
qw ln a b 0.05 ln a b
r o 0.1
dmax 5H2 H2 2 572 72 2 5 2.56 m
ã kp ã 0.004p

6.11 S UMMARY

Flow of water through soils is governed by Darcy’s law, which states that the velocity is proportional to
the hydraulic gradient. The proportionality constant is the hydraulic conductivity. The hydraulic conductivity
depends on soil type, particle size, pore fluid properties, void ratio, pore size, homogeneity, layering and fissur-
ing, and entrapped gases. In coarse-grained soils the hydraulic conductivity is determined using a constant-
head test, while for fine-grained soils a falling-head test is used. In the field, a pumping test is used to determine
the hydraulic conductivity. Wellpoints are used at a construction site to lower the groundwater level.

Self-Assessment
Access Chapter 6 at http://www.wiley.com/college/budhu to take the end-of-chapter quiz to test your
understanding of this chapter.

Practical Example
EXAMPLE 6.10 Application of Flow Data to a Canal
A ditch is required for a utility line near an ephemeral canal, which at the time of excavation was filled with water,
as shown in Figure E6.10. The average vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities are 1 3 1025 cm/s and 2 3
1024 cm/s, respectively. Assuming a 1-m length of ditch, determine the flow rate of water into it.
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EXERCISES 127

100 m
EL:1000 m

EL:993 m Canal

EL:992 m
EL:991 m
Ditch

FIGURE E6.10

Strategy You need to determine an equivalent hydraulic conductivity and then calculate the flow rate using
Darcy’s law. However, to calculate the flow rate, you need to determine the hydraulic gradient. To do so, find the
difference in total head between the canal and the ditch, and then divide by the length of the flow.

Solution 6.10
Step 1: Calculate an equivalent hydraulic conductivity.

keq 5 "kzkx 5 "10 25 3 2 3 10 24 5 4.5 3 10 25 cm/s

Step 2: Determine the hydraulic gradient.

Take datum as the bottom of the ditch.
Elevation head at base of ditch 5 0, pressure head at base of ditch 5 0; total head at ditch 5 0
Elevation head at base of canal 5 1 m, pressure head at base of canal 5 8 m; total head at canal 5 9 m
Head difference, Dh 5 9 m

100 2 993
Slope > tan 21 a b 5 4°
100

100
Average length of flow path, L 5 5 100.2 m
cos 1 4° 2
Dh 9
i5 5 5 0.09
L 100.2

Step 3: Calculate the flow rate.

Assume flow parallel to the slope and consider a vertical section of the ditch.

A 5 1 993 2 991 2 3 1 5 2 m2

qi 5 AKeq i 5 2 3 1 4.5 3 10 25 /100 2 3 0.09 5 0.81 3 10 27 m3 /s

E X E R CIS E S

Theory Figure P6.2 on page 128. Take the water level at exit as
datum. (Hint: You need to convert the pressure 10 kPa
6.1 A pump test is carried out to determine the hydraulic
to head.)
conductivity of a confined aquifer, as shown in Figure
P6.1 on page 128. Show that the equation for k is 6.3 The groundwater level in a soil layer 10 m thick is located
at 3 m below the surface. (a) Plot the distribution of
q ln 1 r1 /r2 2 hydrostatic pressure with depth. (b) If the groundwater
k5 were to rise to the surface, plot on the same graph
2pH 1 h1 2 h2 2
as (a), using a different line type, the distribution of
hydrostatic pressure with depth. (c) Repeat (b), but the
Problem Solving groundwater is now 2 m above the ground surface (flood
6.2 Determine the pressure head, elevation head, and total condition). Interpret and discuss these plots with respect
head at A, B, and C for the arrangement shown in to the effects of fluctuating groundwater levels.
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128 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

Observation wells Pumping well

r1
r2

Initial groundwater level

Drawdown curve

h2
h1
Impervious

H
Permeable

Impervious
FIGURE P6.1

10 kPa

0.4 m
0.5 m 0.5 m 0.5 m 0.5 m

Soil A

1m C Exit Datum
0.75 m
0.5 m

FIGURE P6.2

6.4 In a constant-head permeability test, a sample of soil 12 cm in the standpipe of diameter 5 mm dropped from 68 cm
long and 6 cm in diameter discharged 1.5 3 1023 m3 of to 50.2 cm. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of this clay.
water in 10 minutes. The head difference in two piezome- 6.7 Calculate the equivalent hydraulic conductivity for the
ters A and B located at 1 cm and 11 cm, respectively, from soil profile shown in Figure P6.7.
the bottom of the sample is 2 cm. Determine the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil. What is the soil type tested?
6.5 A constant-head test was conducted on a sample of soil 10 m kz = 2.3 × 10–2 cm/s
15 cm long and 60 cm2 in cross-sectional area. The quan- kx = 8 × 10–2 cm/s
tity of water collected was 50 cm3 in 20 seconds under a 2m kz = 5.7 × 10–4 cm/s, kx = 25.5 × 10–4 cm/s
head difference of 24 cm. Calculate the hydraulic con-
ductivity. If the porosity of the sand is 55%, calculate the 10 m kz = 9.2 × 10–7 cm/s
average velocity and the seepage velocity. Estimate the kx = 27 × 10–7 cm/s
hydraulic conductivity of a similar soil with a porosity of
FIGURE P6.7
35% from the results of this test.
6.6 A falling-head permeability test was carried out on a clay 6.8 A pumping test was carried out to determine the av-
soil of diameter 10 cm and length 15 cm. In 1 hour the head erage hydraulic conductivity of a sand deposit 20 m
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EXERCISES 129

thick overlying impermeable clay. The discharge from the silt layer. The excavation has to be kept dry. Determine
pumping well was 10 3 1023 m3/s. Drawdowns in the the flow (qi) into the excavation.
observation wells located 15 m and 30 m from the 6.10 Groundwater is pumped for domestic use from an un-
centerline of the pumping well were 2.1 m and 1.6 m, confined aquifer (water-bearing sand layer). The thick-
respectively. Groundwater table was reached at 3.2 m ness of the clay layer above the sand layer is 20 m and
below the ground surface. Determine the hydraulic con- its initial porosity is 40%. After 10 years of pumping, the
ductivity of the sand. Estimate the effective grain size porosity is reduced to 30%. Determine the subsidence of
using Hazen’s equation. the clay surface.
6.11 A canal is dug parallel to a river, as shown in Figure P6.11.
Practical A sandy-silt seam of average thickness 0.5 m cuts across
6.9 An excavation is proposed for a square area near the the otherwise impermeable clay. The average vertical and
bend of a river, as shown in Figure P6.9. It is expected horizontal hydraulic conductivities are 1.5 3 1025 cm/s and
that the flow of water into the excavation will come 15 3 1025 cm/s, respectively. Assuming a 1-m length of
through the silt layer. Pumping tests reveal an average canal, determine the flow rate of water from the canal to
horizontal hydraulic conductivity of 2 3 1025 cm/s in the the river.

River

a a

Excavation
Plan

1.2 1m
Slope
1
2m 4m
Excavation

Silt
Cross section a–a. 8m 21 m
FIGURE P6.9 Not to scale

30 m Canal
EL: 99.5 m
Clay EL: 99.0 m
EL: 98.0 m
EL: 96.48 m
Sandy-silt seam
River 0.5 m (average)
FIGURE P6.11

θ = 20°

4m Stream

A Rock outcrop

B
Canal

FIGURE P6.12
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130 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

6.12 An excavation is made for a canal that is fed by a stream, at the far edge of the excavation must be 0.5 m below
as shown in Figure P6.12. The measured flow into the the base.
canal is 0.25 3 1024 m3/s per unit area. Two porewater (a) Calculate the radius of influence.
pressure transducers, A and B, placed along a line par-
(b) Calculate the maximum drawdown.
allel to the slope and approximately at the canal mid-
height gave readings of 3 kPa and 2.5 kPa. Assuming flow (c) Plot the drawdown curve.
parallel to the slope, estimate the hydraulic conductivity. (d) For the radius of influence in (a), (i) calculate the
6.13 A well of 0.1 m radius is part of a wellpoint network to discharge if the well radius increases to 0.2 m, and (ii)
keep an excavation dry (Figure P6.13). The groundwater compare it to the discharge for the 0.1-m-radius well.

Wellpoint Flow

Original GWL

2m
Excavation
0.1 m Drawdown
8m 0.5 m
k = 5.8 × 10–5 m/s
qw = 13.2 × 10–4 m3/s

1m 8m

Impermeable
FIGURE P6.13
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Exercise 6.1

A pump test is carried out to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a confined aquifer,
as shown in Figure P6.1 on page 128. Show that the equation for k is

( )
( )

Solution 6.1

( ) ( )

∫ ∫

( )
( )

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Exercise 6.2:

Determine the pressure head, elevation head, and total head at A, B, and C for the arrangement
shown in Fig. P6.2. Take the water level at exit as datum. Hint: You need to convert the pressure
10 kPa to head.

Solution 6.2:

As we are interested in the heads at A, write Bernoulli’s equation between points B and A.
10 kPa P
 0.9 m  A  0.25 m  h LBA  (1)
9.81 kN / m 3
w

For hL(B-A), write Bernoulli’s equation from point B to point C:

10 kPa
 0.9 m  0.0 m  0.0 m  hL  BC   1.02 m  0.9 m  1.92m (2)
9.81 kN / m 3

The head loss is linear in the system. Hence, after moving through half of the length of the soil,
half of the head loss has occurred.
hL(B-A) = 1.92 m / 2 = 0.96 m. Now, insert this result back into (1):

10 kPa P
 0.9 m  A  0.25 m  0.96 m
9.81 kN / m 3
w

PA
 1.02 m  0.9 m  0.25 m  0.96 m  0.71 m
w

Present all results in a table:

Point Elev. Head (m) Pressure Head (m) Total Head (m)
A 0.25 0.71 0.96
B 0.90 1.02 1.92
C (datum) 0.0 0.0 0.0

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Exercise 6.3:

The groundwater level in a soil layer 10 m thick is located at 3 m below the surface. (a) Plot the
distribution of hydrostatic pressure with depth. (b) If the groundwater were to rise to the surface,
plot on the same graph as (a), using a different line type, the distribution of hydrostatic pressure
with depth. (c) Repeat (b), but the groundwater is now 2 m above the ground surface (flood
condition). Interpret and discuss these plots with respect to the effects of fluctuating groundwater
levels.

Solution 6.3
Hydrostatic pressure = w x depth

2m

3m

10 m

Increase in groundwater elevation decrease the effective stresses ( =  – u) where u =

hydrostatic pressure.

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Exercise 6.4:

In a constant-head permeability test, a sample of soil 12 cm long and 6 cm in diameter

discharged 1.5 × 10−3 m3 of water in 10 minutes. The head difference in two manometers A and
B located at 1 cm and 11 cm, respectively, from the bottom of the sample is 2 cm. Determine the
hydraulic conductivity of the soil. What is the soil type tested?

Solution 6.4

Cross sectional area of soil

Although the length of the soil sample is 12cm, the distance over which the head was measured
is 11 – 1 = 10 cm

Therefore, the hydraulic gradient,

The constant head permeability test is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of coarse-
grained soils. Soil types: clean sands, clean sand and gravel mixtures.

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Exercise 6.5:

A constant-head test was conducted on a sample of soil 15 cm long and 60 cm2 in cross-
sectional area. The quantity of water collected was 50 cm3 in 20 seconds under a head
difference of 24 cm. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity. If the porosity of the sand were
55%, calculate the average velocity and the seepage velocity. Estimate the hydraulic
conductivity of a similar soil with a porosity of 35% from the results of this test.

Solution 6.5:

This test was completed at n = 0.55. For sands, Taylor (1948) presented a relationship
between k and the void ratio, e.

e3 e3
k  ; or k  (constant)
1  e 1  e

n 0.55
e ; e  1.22
1 n 1  0.55

Solving for the constant, we get constant = 4.24 x 10-2 cm/sec

Hence, for the same soil at another void ratio, the same constant may be used. Hence, the
following is calculated for k at a porosity of 0.35 ( e = 0.54):

0.54 3
k  (4.24  10 2 cm / sec)  4.34  10 3 cm/sec.
1  0.54

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Exercise 6.6:

A falling-head permeability test was carried out on a clay soil of diameter 100 mm and length
150 mm. In 1 hour the head in the standpipe of diameter 5 mm dropped from 680 to 502 mm.
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of this clay.

Solution 6.6

Cross sectional area of soil;

Standpipe cross sectional area;

( ) ( ) ⁄

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Exercise 6.7:

Calculate the equivalent hydraulic conductivity for the soil profile shown in Fig. P6.7.

Solution 6.7

Equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity:

∑ ( )
( )
∑
⁄ ⁄ ⁄

⁄
( ) ⁄

You should observe that the flow in this case is controlled (primarily) by the layer with
the lowest hydraulic conductivity – the bottom layer.

Equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity:

∑
( )
∑
( ⁄ )( ) ( ⁄ )( ) ( ⁄ )( )
( )
⁄

You should observe that the flow is controlled (primarily) by the layer with the highest
hydraulic conductivity – the top layer.
√( ) ( ) √ ⁄

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Exercise 6.8:

A pumping test was carried out to determine the average hydraulic conductivity of a sand deposit
20 m thick overlying impermeable clay. The discharge from the pumping well was 10 × 10 −3
m3/s. Drawdowns in the observation wells located 15 m and 30 m from the centerline of the
pumping well were 2.1 m and 1.6 m, respectively. Groundwater table was reached at 3.2 m
below the ground surface. Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the sand. Estimate the
effective grain size using Hazen’s equation.

Solution 6.8

Use simple well formula.

r1 = 15 m, r2 = 30 m, h1 = 14.7 m, h2 = 15.2 m

( )
⁄
( )

Effective grain size (D10)

Assume C = 1

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Exercise 6.9:

An excavation is proposed for a square area near the bend of a river as shown in Fig.
P6.9. It is expected that the flow of water into the excavation will come through the silt
layer. Pumping tests reveal an average horizontal hydraulic conductivity of 2 × 10−5 cm/s
in the silt layer. The excavation has to be kept dry. Determine the flow rate (qi) into the
excavation.

Solution 6.9
12.8 m

8m

Average width = 10.4 m

Flow will occur from two sides of excavation

The average width is 8 + 2 (1.2 x 1) = 10.4 m

Area =(10.4 x 2 ) x 2 = 41.6 m 2 ; k = 2 × 10−7 m/s

⁄ ⁄

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Exercise 6.10:

Groundwater is pumped for domestic use from an unconfined aquifer sand layer. The
thickness of the clay layer above the sand layer is 20 m and its initial porosity is 40%.
After 10 years of pumping, the porosity is reduced to 30%. Determine the subsidence of
the clay surface.

Solution 6.10

The subsidence is due to the change in void ratio and since the volume of solids remains
constant, we can write:

(hv ) f
1
hf hs  (hv ) i hs 1 ef
  
hi hs  (hv ) f (h ) 1  ei
1 v i
hs

where e is the void ratio, h is the thickness of the layer, i = initial, f = final, s = solids and
v is the voids.

ni 0.4 2
ei   
1  n i 1  0.4 3
nf 0.3 3
ef   
1  n f 1  0.3 7
1  ef h f 1  7 h f
3
  
1  ei hi 1 2 20
3
h f  0.857  20  17 .14 m
subsidence  20  17 .14  2.86 m

Alternatively,

1 ni hf

1 nf hi
1  0.4 h f

1  0.3 20

h f  17 .14 m
subsidence  20  17 .14  2.86 m

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Exercise 6.11

A canal is dug parallel to a river as shown in Fig. P6.11. A sandy-silt seam of average
thickness 0.5 m cuts across the otherwise impermeable clay. The average vertical and
horizontal hydraulic conductivities are 1.5 × 10−5 cm/s and 15 × 10−5 cm/s respectively.
Assume a 1 m length of canal, determine the flow rate of water from the canal to the
river.

Solution 6.11

A
B

Equivalent hydraulic conductivity:

√ √( )( ) ⁄
Select B as Datum
Heads at B
Elevation head: hZB = 0
Pressure head: hPB = 98 - 96.48 = 1.52 m
Total head at B = 1.52 m
Heads at A
Elevation head : hZA = 99 - 96.48 = 2.52 m
Pressure head: hPA = 0.5 m
Total head at A = 3.02 m

Head loss from A to B = 3.02 – 1.52 = 1.5 m

L  2.52 2  30 2  30.1m L
2.52 m
H 1.5
i   0.0498 30m
L 30.1

A (cross-sectional area) per 1 m length = 0.5  1  0.5m 2

q (flow rate) = kiA =  4.74 105 /100    0.0498   0.5  1.18 108 m
3

sec

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Exercise 6.12

An excavation is made for a canal that is fed by a stream, as shown in Figure P6.12. The
measured flow into the canal is 0.25 x 10-4 m3/s per unit area. Two porewater pressure
transducers, A and B, placed along a line parallel to the slope and approximately at the
canal mid height gave readings of 3 kPa and 2.5 kPa. Assuming flow parallel to the slope,
estimate the hydraulic conductivity.

Solution 6.12

hp = Pressure head difference = p/w = (3-2.5)/9.8 = 0.051m

Let  be the slope angle in radians

q = Aki ; A = 1 m2

Slope = 20°

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Exercise 6.13:

A well, 0.1 m radius, is part of a wellpoint network to keep an excavation dry (Fig.
P6.13). The groundwater at the far edge of the excavation must be 0.5 m below the base.
a) Calculate the radius of influence.
b) Calculate the maximum drawdown.
c) Plot the drawdown curve.
d) For the radius of influence in (a), (i) calculate the discharge if the well radius
increases to 0.2 m and (ii) compare it to the discharge for the 0.1 m radius well.

Solution 6.13

a) Radius of influence

The drawdown at a radius of 9.1 m is 2.5 m

q w ln( R )
d  H  H2  r
k
13.2  10  4 ln( R )
2.5  8  8 
2 9.1
5.8  10 5 
R  436 m

b) Maximum Drawdown occurs at well face, i.e. at r  ro  0.1m

√ ( ) ( )
√

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(c) Drawdown curve

H 8 m
qw 0.00132 m3/s
R 436 m
k 0.000058 m/s

R/r 4360 2180 1090 545 272.5 136.25 68.125 34.0625

r 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 m
d 6.2 5.1 4.3 3.7 3.2 2.7 2.2 1.8 m

radius (m)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0.0

1.0

2.0
Drawdown (m)

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

d) For the same radium of influence and a well radius on 0.2 m

Assume the drawdown at the well radius is the same.
(i)
q w ln( R )
ro
d max  H  H2 
k
q w ln( 436 )
6.18  8  8  2 0. 2
5.8  10 5 
q w  143 .7  10 5 m 3 / s
(ii) The ratio of the flow is 143.7 x 10-5/13.2 x 10-4 = 1.1

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