Iesha John Smart

320012665

GRST6900 - Research Processes

Assessment 1- Mini Essays

September 29th, 2024

Essay #1

The scientific method is a systematic approach to understanding and interpreting the

world through observations, questions, hypotheses, experiments, data analysis, and conclusion-
making (Yoshida, 2024). The scientific method is a set of methods used to prove or disprove one
or more hypotheses, which are proposed explanations for observed phenomena. Hypotheses are
empirically gathered through observation and experimentation, while theories are the end result
of previously tested hypotheses. A working hypothesis, sometimes called a hypothesis, needs to
be proved or disproved through investigation. The scientific method is rigid and constrained,
producing results isolated from real environments. Its key feature is its repeatability, which
requires experiments to record details and reduce bias, while ensuring neutrality in peer review.
The scientific method relies on human creativity, imagination, and intelligence for its existence.
However, flawed documentation and a lack of importance for observations outside the main
hypothesis can lead to flawed acceptance. This issue is common among paleontologists who lack
testing methods for their observations.

Both the notion that human behavior is fundamentally rule-governed and the notion that
natural science methods should be used to study it are important tenets of the normative
approach. Interpretivism, sometimes referred to as interpretivist research, incorporates human
interest into a study by having researchers interpret certain aspects of it.

Individual concerns are what distinguish the interpretive paradigm from its normative
counterpart. Positive studies are found in normative research, while anti-positivist theories are
found in all theories developed within the interpretive paradigm (Cohen et al., 2018).
Interpretivism has disadvantages like subjective nature and researcher bias, affecting data
reliability and representativeness. However, it allows for deep study of qualitative research areas
like cross-cultural differences, ethics, and leadership, and may lead to high validity due to
trustworthy and honest primary data. Critical theory is a prescriptive and normative approach to
understanding and promoting behavior in a social democracy, aiming to create a society based on
equality and democracy, aiming to emancipate the disempowered and promote individual
freedoms (Cohen et al., 2018). It satisfies the standards of legitimacy and Concerns about
equality related to oppression, voice, ideology, power, involvement, representation, and inclusion
and passions. Critical theory, despite its ability to expose social injustices and inequalities, may
not always provide clear, actionable solutions, as it relies heavily on subjective interpretations
and perspectives. Critical theory frequently concentrates on evaluating current structures and
processes, but it doesn't necessarily provide workable solutions for enacting constructive change.

The method I would use to address my topic: “How does effective leadership influence
employee morale and productivity “is the scientific method. The scientific method makes an
effort to reduce the any bias or prejudice. I can be sure that I will adhere to the facts and reduce
the impact of my own, preconceived ideas by employing a standardised method. It offers a
structure for testing hypotheses, applying logic, and pursuing rationality and truth.
References

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.).
Routledge.

Castillo, M. (2013). The Scientific Method: A Need for Something Better? American Journal of
Neuroradiology, 34(9), 1669–1671. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.a3401

Yoshida, Mike. (2024). The Scientific Method. 10.13140/RG.2.2.32041.36962.

Essay #2

It is crucial and in fact a human right to follow ethical guidelines when conducting
research and creating programs for and with adolescents. Nonetheless, ethical research and
programming involving this demographic worldwide poses a multitude of obstacles and distinct
difficulties that entities must consistently navigate. A collection of regulations and principles
that should be taken into account in order to prevent potential harm to study participants and
investigators is referred to as ethical considerations in research (Shahriari et al., 2018).
Significant physical, psychological, and social changes take place during adolescence, which is
defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the second decade of life (10–19 years old)
(Singh et al., 2019). Those participants under the age of eighteen are considered to be minors and
researchers must ensure that they are protected during this process.

Obtaining consent and co-operation from subjects who are assisting in investigation is
very important when conducting social research (Cohen et al., 2018). (Folayan et al., 2014) posit
that informed consent is a key principle in research ethics, requiring dialogue, participant
participation, and clear explanation of legal information. It respects individuality and ensures
understanding of all required information. The ethical precept of "respect for persons" stipulates
that informed concept must be freely given, uninduced, and free from coercion. It also
recognizes people's autonomy to make their own decisions and takes into account the possibility
that parental engagement could jeopardize private information. Parental consent is also a major
concerning when conducting research with participants under the age of eighteen. Some parents
may not feel comfortable allowing their children to participate in a research about sexually
transmitted diseases. (Folayan et al., 2014) mention, in certain Nigerian communities, parents
may choose to consult with their families or other respected members of the community before
agreeing to give their consent for a teenager to take part in sexual and reproductive health
research. This is especially likely to happen if the research includes talking about sex with young
people in areas where talking about sexual matters with teenagers is customarily frowned upon.
An adolescent’s privacy is compromised by this type of discussion. Adolescent enrollment in
research requires balancing parental involvement with protecting privacy and confidentiality,
particularly regarding sex and sexuality. This becomes complex when enrolling teenagers below
legal consent age, requiring careful consideration.
 Research should justify its inclusion or exclusion, considering harms and benefits to
children, families, and communities, and consult local standards and practices for research plans
and protocols. Obtain consent from child participants, inform them about research purpose and
involvement, respect their decisions, and understand consent is renegotiable and can be revoked
at any time. Acquiring parental consent is an obligation that requires ensuring that the interests of
the parents are not prioritized over the adolescent’s. The researcher is committed to upholding
children's privacy rights and ensuring the confidentiality of their information through secure
storage, protection, and disposal. Avoid paying individuals that may be perceived as bribes or
coercion, as these payments may pressure them to participate in a study or project.
References

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.).

Routledge.

Folayan, M. O., Haire, B., Harrison, A., Odetoyingbo, M., Fatusi, O., & Brown, B. (2014).

Ethical Issues in Adolescents’ Sexual and Reproductive Health Research in Nigeria.

Developing World Bioethics, 15(3), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12061

GEAS. (n.d.). Ethics in Research and Programming with Adolescents: Capturing the

Perspectives of International Organizations.

https://publichealth.jhu.edu/sites/default/files/2023-09/ethicsinresearchandprogrammingw

ithadolescents-capturingtheperspectivesofinter.pdf

Shahriari, M., Shirmohammadi, M., Kohan, S., & Shamsi-Gooshki, E. (2018). Ethical

considerations in sexual health research: A narrative review. Iranian Journal of Nursing

and Midwifery Research, 23(3), 157. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijnmr.ijnmr_60_17

Singh, J. A., Siddiqi, M., Parameshwar, P., & Chandra-Mouli, V. (2019). World Health

Organization Guidance on Ethical Considerations in Planning and Reviewing Research

Studies on Sexual and Reproductive Health in Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent

Health, 64(4), 427–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.01.008

Essay# 3

Research philosophies offer explanations concerning the nature of the reality under
investigation (ontology) and the process by which knowledge of this reality is generated and
validated (epistemology) (Mauthner, 2020). Three philosophical traditions inform research:
positivism, pragmatism, and post-positivism. The tenet of positivism is that knowledge of the
truth can only be acquired by scientific means. It makes the claim that only information that is
'factual' and derived from measurement and observation is reliable. The principal application of
positivism is in basic science, where experiments are conducted to directly manipulate and
observe natural laws. The positivist approach to research is quantitative, focusing on numerical
data and descriptive statistical methods. The conclusion makes inferences based on this data,
ensuring the validity of the findings. Post-positivism challenges the fundamental assumptions of
positivism and emphasizes constructivist theory, which holds that our perceptions shape the
worldview we inhabit. They contend that theories, preexisting knowledge, and values can affect
observed occurrences and that biases can be used to objectively identify the truth. In applied
research, post-positivists apply their theories and concentrate on creating novel technologies and
solving real-world problems. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are regarded as
legitimate research approaches by them, with qualitative research emphasizing non-numerical
and unquantifiable characteristics while being descriptive and utilizing numerical data.
Pragmatism is a philosophy that views truth as a construct rather than an absolute truth. It
emphasizes the importance of multiple interpretations of the world and the need for multiple
perspectives in research. Pragmatists integrate various methods, such as qualitative, quantitative,
and action research, to provide a comprehensive understanding of reality.

Theories are applicable to mixed-methods, quantitative, and qualitative research

(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Two major theoretical frameworks that are related to my research
topic are behavioral theory and contingency theory. Theories in quantitative studies provide
explanations or predictions about variables' relationships, forming research questions and
hypotheses. They can be broad or narrow, and can be presented through hypotheses, logic
statements, or visual models. Researchers advance theories deductively, including them in the
literature review or separate sections, with scripts aiding in designing theory sections. Similar to
quantitative research like ethnographies, investigators in qualitative research use theory as a
general explanation. It might also be a theoretical framework or viewpoint that poses issues with
regard to gender, class, race, or any combination of these. In addition, theory might be the result
of a qualitative investigation, a produced theory, a pattern, or a generalization that results
inductively from the gathering and examination of facts. Certain qualitative investigations offer
descriptive analysis of the main phenomenon without presenting a clear theory. Mixed methods
researchers use a social science or participatory-social justice framework to design, analyze, and
interpret data. This framework recognizes the non-neutrality of knowledge, human interests, and
issues like power and social relationships. It is incorporated into various stages of the research
process, including introduction, research questions, data collection, and interpretation. Criteria
for incorporating a participatory-social justice framework are developed.
References

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design : Qualitative, Quantitative, and
Mixed Methods Approaches. Sage Publications, Inc.

Crowther, D. & Lancaster G., Research Methods: A Concise Introduction to Research

Management and Business Consultancy (Butterworth: Heinemann, 2008).

Mauthner, N. S. (2020). Research Philosophies and Why They Matter. How to Keep Your
Doctorate on Track, 76–86. Researchgate. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788975636.00018