6 - 0 DB Storage System

6.
0 Storage System
Databases are stored in file formats, which contain records. At

physical level, the actual data is stored in electromagnetic format on
some device. These storage devices can be broadly categorized into
three types –
 Primary Storage − The memory storage that is directly

accessible to the CPU comes under this category. CPU's
internal memory (registers), fast memory (cache), and main
memory (RAM) are directly accessible to the CPU, as they
are all placed on the motherboard or CPU chipset.
This storage is typically very small, ultra-fast, and volatile.
Primary storage requires continuous power supply in order

to maintain its state. In case of a power failure, all its data is
lost.
 Secondary Storage − Secondary storage devices are used

to store data for future use or as backup. Secondary storage
includes memory devices that are not a part of the CPU
chipset or motherboard, for example, magnetic disks,
optical disks (DVD, CD, etc.), hard disks, flash drives, and
magnetic tapes.
 Tertiary Storage − Tertiary storage is used to store huge

volumes of data. Since such storage devices are external to
the computer system, they are the slowest in speed. These
storage devices are mostly used to take the back up of an
entire system.
Optical disks and magnetic tapes are widely used as tertiary

storage.
Memory Hierarchy
A computer system has a well-defined hierarchy of memory. A CPU

has direct access to it main memory as well as its inbuilt registers. The
access time of the main memory is obviously less than the CPU speed.
To minimize this speed mismatch, cache memory is introduced.
Cache memory provides the fastest access time and it contains data
that is most frequently accessed by the CPU.
The memory with the fastest access is the costliest one. Larger
storage devices offer slow speed and they are less expensive,
however they can store huge volumes of data as compared to CPU
registers or cache memory.
Magnetic Disks
Hard disk drives are the most common secondary storage devices in
present computer systems. These are called magnetic disks because
they use the concept of magnetization to store information. Hard
disks consist of metal disks coated with magnetizable material. These
disks are placed vertically on a spindle.
A read/write head moves in between the disks and is used to

magnetize or de-magnetize the spot under it. A magnetized spot can
be recognized as 0 (zero) or 1 (one).
Hard disks are formatted in a well-defined order to store data
efficiently. A hard disk plate has many concentric circles on it,
called tracks. Every track is further divided into sectors. A sector on
a hard disk typically stores 512 bytes of data.
Redundant Array of Independent Disks
RAID or Redundant Array of Independent Disks, is a technology to

connect multiple secondary storage devices and use them as a single
storage media.
RAID consists of an array of disks in which multiple disks are

connected together to achieve different goals. RAID levels define the
use of disk arrays.
RAID 0
In this level, a striped array of disks is implemented. The data is

broken down into blocks and the blocks are distributed among disks.
Each disk receives a block of data to write/read in parallel. It enhances
the speed and performance of the storage device. There is no parity
and backup in Level 0.
RAID 1
RAID 1 uses mirroring techniques. When data is sent to a RAID

controller, it sends a copy of data to all the disks in the array. RAID
level 1 is also called mirroring and provides 100% redundancy in
case of a failure.
RAID 2
RAID 2 records Error Correction Code using Hamming distance for its
data, striped on different disks. Like level 0, each data bit in a word is
recorded on a separate disk and ECC codes of the data words are
stored on a different set disks. Due to its complex structure and high
cost, RAID 2 is not commercially available.
RAID 3
RAID 3 stripes the data onto multiple disks. The parity bit generated
for data word is stored on a different disk. This technique makes it to
overcome single disk failures.
RAID 4
In this level, an entire block of data is written onto data disks and
then the parity is generated and stored on a different disk. Note that
level 3 uses byte-level striping, whereas level 4 uses block-level
striping. Both level 3 and level 4 require at least three disks to
implement RAID.
RAID 5
RAID 5 writes whole data blocks onto different disks, but the parity
bits generated for data block stripe are distributed among all the data
disks rather than storing them on a different dedicated disk.
RAID 6
RAID 6 is an extension of level 5. In this level, two independent

parities are generated and stored in distributed fashion among
multiple disks. Two parities provide additional fault tolerance. This
level requires at least four disk drives to implement RAID.

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6.

Databases are stored in file formats, which contain records. At

 Primary Storage − The memory storage that is directly

This storage is typically very small, ultra-fast, and volatile.

Primary storage requires continuous power supply in order

 Secondary Storage − Secondary storage devices are used

 Tertiary Storage − Tertiary storage is used to store huge

Optical disks and magnetic tapes are widely used as tertiary

A computer system has a well-defined hierarchy of memory. A CPU

A read/write head moves in between the disks and is used to

Redundant Array of Independent Disks

RAID or Redundant Array of Independent Disks, is a technology to

RAID consists of an array of disks in which multiple disks are

In this level, a striped array of disks is implemented. The data is

RAID 1 uses mirroring techniques. When data is sent to a RAID

RAID 6 is an extension of level 5. In this level, two independent

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