Temperature:-

It is the measurement of the hotness or coldness of a body.

Definition
Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of body.
Note: Temperature determines the direction flow of heat.
Measurement of Temperature:-
Temperature can be measuring the physical properties, as properties changes with the temperature.
Temperature is measured by using thermometer
Principle of Thermometer:-
Thermometer works on principle of Thermal Equilibrium
When two bodies at different temperatures are brought in thermal contact with each other, the
heat start flowing from the hot body to the cold body till the temperature of both bodies becomes
same then they are said to be in Thermal Equilibrium.
Scales of Thermometer:-
There are three scales of temperature
(i) Centigrade or Celsius scale
(ii) Fahrenheit scale
(iii) Kelvin or absolute scale are commonly used these days
C° F° K
M.P/F.P 0 32 273
B.P. 100 212 373

Conversion of Temperature:
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝: 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 − 𝐹. 𝑃 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝: 𝑜𝑛 2𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 − 𝐹. 𝑃
=
𝐵. 𝑃 − 𝐹. 𝑃 𝐵. 𝑃 − 𝐹. 𝑃
𝑇𝐶 − 0 𝑇𝐹 − 32 𝑇𝐾 − 273
= =
100 180 100
Points to remember
• 𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273
• Fahrenheit and Celsius scales coincide at -40o C or -40o F
• Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales coincide at 574.25 o F or 574.25K
• 1 K = 1o C & 1o C = 1.8o F

The Triple Point of Water:

The vapor, liquid, and solid states of water can coexist in thermal equilibrium only at a specific pressure
and temperature.
Definition
The triple point of water occurs at a specific temperature and pressure, where all three phases are in
thermodynamic equilibrium.

This means that at the triple point, ice, liquid water, and water vapor can exist together without any phase
changing to another.
Value
The triple point of water is precisely 273.16 K (0.01 °C) and 4.58
mm of mercury (611.73 Pa) and is used to calibrate thermometer.
Graph
In a figure , the triple point is represented as the point where the
lines separating the solid, liquid, and gas phases meet. This
diagram visually demonstrates the relationship between
temperature and pressure for the different phases of water.

Gas law:
There relation b/w the physical quantity which determine the state of gas are called Gas law.
These physical quantities are
• Pressure
• Volume
• Temperature
• Mass
There are following Gas Laws
▪ Boyle’s Law
▪ Charles law
▪ General Gas Equation
Boyle’s Law:-
Boyle’s Law is the relation between volume and pressure of a gas at constant temperature and mass.
Definition
The volume of any given mass of a gas varies inversely to its pressure provided that the
temperature is kept constant”.
Mathematical Representation:-
1
V  P
K
V = P
PV = K
Therefore
 P1 V1 = P2 V2
Graph
The graph between pressure and volume is a hyperbola e whereas graph between pressure and reciprocal
of volume (1/V) is a straight line passing through the origin, showing direct proportionality

Charles’s Law:-
Introduction
It is the relation between absolute temperature and volume of a gas at constant pressure and mass.
Definition
The volume of any given mass of a gas varies directly to its absolute temperature when pressure is kept
constant.
Mathematical Representation:-
V  T
V = KT
V
T = K
Therefore
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Graph
The graph b/w volume and temp is a straight line which shows that
volume increases with the increasing in temperature. If this line is
projected backwards, it meets the temperature axis at – 273.160C
indicated Zero volume.
If this line projected further back word it shows negative volume which
is the mean less idea.
Thus –2730C is the lowest possible temperature that a gas can achieve
and is called Absolute Zero or O Kelvin
Avogadro's Law:
Introduction
It is relationship between volume and number of molecules of a gas.
Definition
Equal volume of all gases contains the same number of molecules at the same temperature and pressure".
Mathematical Representation:-
Thus, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to number of moles of the gas at constant temperature
and pressure.
In symbol, we can write as:
V  n (at constant temperature and pressure)
V = Kn
V
= K
n
Therefore
V1 V2
=
n1 n2
When V1 and V2 are volumes of gas and n1 and n2 are amount of gas.
Avogadro's number.
A mole of any substance is that mass of substance that contains a specific No. of molecules called
Avogadro's number.
NA = 6. 022 X 1023 molecules
General Gas Law:
Introduction

In order to derive general gas law, we make use of Boyle's law, Charles's law and Avogadro's law.
Definition
An interrelation among the physical quantities e.g. pressure, volume, temperature and amount of matter
of a given sample of gas is termed as "equation of state" of gas or General gas law.

Mathematical Representation:-
According to Boyle's law:
1
V  − (when n number of mole and temperature Tare kept constant)
𝑃
According to Charles's law
V  T (when n and pressure Pare kept constant)
According to Avogadro's law:
V  T (when T and Pare kept constant)
Consider for a moment that none of the variable are to be kept Ideal or perfect gas is a constant, then all
the above three relationships can be joined together. gas that obeys gas Laws
nT
V 
P
RnT
V =
𝑃
Where R is constant of proportionally and is called General gas constant or universal gas constant and
does not depend on the quantity of gas in the sample.
If P is measured in Nm-2 V in m3 and T in Kelvin then the volume of universal gas constant is
R = 8.314 J mol-1 , K-1
Above equation is written as:
PV = nRT
Boltzmann Constant
The value of universal gas constant for molecule is called Boltzmann constant.(K)
𝑅 8.314
𝐾= = = 1.38 × 10−23 J/Molecule K
𝑁𝐴 6.02x 1023
Basic Postulates of Kinetic Theory of Gases:
The basic postulates of Kinetic Theory of gases are as under
1) A gas contains a very large number of particles called molecules.
Depending on the gases each molecule consists of an atom or a group of atoms.
2) A finite volume of a gas consists of very large number of molecules.
This assumption is justified by experiments. At standard conditions there are 3 x 1025 molecules per
cubic meter.
3) The size of the molecules is much smaller than separation between molecules;
It is about 3 x 10-10 m.
4) The molecules move in all directions with various speeds collide elastically with one another and with
the walls of the container.
5) The molecules exert no forces on one another except during collisions. In the absence of the external
forces, they move freely in straight lines.
6) Laws of mechanics are assumed to be applicable to the motion of molecules.
1
𝐒𝐡𝐨𝐰 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 P = 𝜌 ̅̅̅ 𝑣2
3
Proof
The pressure exerted by a gas is merely the momentum transferred to the walls of the container per
second per unit area due to the continuous collisions of molecules of the gas
Consider a cube in which the length of each side is L.
The vessels contain ‘N’ molecule of gas and mass of each molecule is “m”.
If “is the volume of cube V = L3 and area of each side A = L2 then
If nv is the number of molecules per unit volume.
𝑁 𝑁
𝑛𝑣 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝐿3 =
𝐿 𝑛𝑣
If ρ is the density of the gas then
ρ = m nv
Consider a single molecule moving with velocity v1, parallel to x-
axis. It moves back and forth, colliding at regular intervals with the
ends of the box and thereby contributing to pressure of the gas.
A molecule which has a velocity v1 can be resolved into three
rectangular components v1x, v1y and v1z parallel to three co-ordinates axis x, y and z.
A molecule which collides with the face ABCDA of the cube, it will rebound elastically in opposite
direction, such that x-component of the velocity v1x, is reversed, the v1y and v1z remain unaffected.
Therefore, the momentum before collision is m v1x, and after collision is - m v1x
causing a change of momentum. v1x, causing a change of momentum.
Change in momentum= Pi - Pf = mv1x – (-mv1x) = 2mv1x
After recoil the molecule travels to opposite face and collides with it, rebounds and travels back to the
face ABCDA after covering a distance 2L.
The time ∆t between two successive collisions with face ABCDA is:
 2𝐿
∆𝑡 =
𝑣1𝑥
Now we can find the force that this one molecule exerts on face ABCDA, using Newton's 2nd law of
motion. This says that the rate of change of momentum of the molecule is equal to force applied by the
wall.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 ∆𝑃
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹1 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 ∆𝑡

2
2𝑚𝑣1𝑥 𝑚𝑣1𝑥
𝐹1 = =
2𝐿 𝐿
( )
𝑣1𝑥
Similarly, the forces due to all other molecules can be determined.
Thus, the total x - directed F due to N number of molecules of the gas moving with velocities
v1, v2, v3, …….. vn is
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +Fn
𝑚𝑣21𝑥 𝑚𝑣22𝑥 𝑚𝑣23𝑥 𝑚𝑣2𝑛𝑥
F= + + + ................+
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
As pressure is normal force per unit area, hence pressure P on the face perpendicular to x-axis is:
F F
P= = 2
A L
2 2 2 2
𝑚𝑣1𝑥 𝑚𝑣2𝑥 𝑚𝑣3𝑥 𝑚𝑣𝑛𝑥 1
P=( + + +................+ )× 2
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 L
m 2 2 2 2 )
P = 3 (𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +𝑣𝑛𝑥
L
𝑁
Putting value of 𝐿3 =
𝑛𝑣
2 2 2 2
m 𝑛𝑣 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +𝑣𝑛𝑥
P= 3 ( )
L 𝑁
Where m nv is the mass per unit volume which we call density p and
2 2 2 2
𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +𝑣𝑛𝑥
= ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑁
Therefore
P = 𝜌 ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2
The term ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 is only one component of the total velocity.
Since ̅̅̅
𝑣 2 = ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 + ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦2 + ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧2
On the average ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 = ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦2 = ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧2

̅̅̅ ̅̅̅ 1 ̅̅̅2

𝑣 2 = 3𝑣 2
𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2
3
Substituting this value into the above equation, we find that
1 2 1
P = 𝜌 ( ̅̅̅𝑣 ) = 𝜌 ̅̅̅ 𝑣2
3 3
Show that average translational Kinetic Energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to absolute
temperature 𝑇 ∝ (𝐾. 𝐸)𝑎𝑣𝑔
The relation between Kinetic Energy of Molecules and Temperature:
Proof
The relation between molecular Kinetic Energy and temperature can be derived by
1
P = ρ̅̅̅̅v2
3
Putting value of ρ = m 𝑛𝑣
1
P = m 𝑛𝑣 ̅̅̅v2
3
N
Since nv represents the number of molecules per unit volume 𝑛𝑣 =
V
1 N 2
P = m ( ) ̅̅̅ v
3 V
1
P V = m N ̅̅̅ v 2 − −−→ 1
3
Now we can compare the equation (15.17) with this ideal gas equation PV = nRT.
The left-hand sides are the same. So, the two right-hand sides must also be equal.
1
m N ̅̅̅
v2 = n R T
3
N 𝟑
Substituting n = and multiplying both sides by we obtain the relation.
NA 𝟐
3 1 3 N
× m N ̅̅̅ v2 = × ( ) R T
2 3 2 NA
1 3 R
m ̅̅̅
v2 = × ( ) T
2 2 NA
𝑅
Since Boltzmann constant 𝐾 =
𝑁𝐴
1 3
m ̅̅̅
v 2 = 𝐾T
2 2
3
(K. E)avg = KT
2
𝟐
Here is Constant
𝟑𝐊
(K. E)avg ∝ T
The mean translational Kinetic energy of a molecule of an ideal gas is proportional to the absolute
temperature.
Hence, mean translational Kinetic energy of a molecule α T.

Numericals
15.1. The freezing point of mercury is -39°C. Convert it into °F and the comfort level temperature of 20°
into Kelvin. (Ans: -38.2°F, 293K)
Solution
A) °C. into °F
𝑇𝐶 − 0 𝑇𝐹 − 32
=
100 180
 −39 − 0 𝑇𝐹 − 32
=
100 180
−39 × 180
= 𝑇𝐹 − 32
100
−70.2 + 32 = 𝑇𝐹
−38.2𝑜 𝐹 = 𝑇𝐹
b) °C. into K
𝑇𝐶 − 0 𝑇𝐾 − 273
=
100 100
20 = 𝑇𝐾 – 273
20 + 273 = 𝑇𝐾
293 𝐾 = 𝑇𝐾

15.2. The boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -321 °F. Change it into Kelvin temperature. (Ans: 77K)
Solution
𝑇𝐹 − 32 𝑇𝐾 − 273
=
180 100
−321 − 32 𝑇𝐾 − 273
=
180 100
−353
× 100 = 𝑇𝐾 − 273
180
−196 + 273 = 𝑇𝐾
77 𝐾 = 𝑇𝐾

15.3. Calculate the volume occupied by a gram-mole of a gas at 0°C and a pressure of 1.0 atmosphere.
(Ans: 22.4 liters/mole)
Data
Given
5 2
Pressure = P = 1 atm = 1.01 x 10 N/m
Temperature = T = 273 K
Number of gram mole = n = 1
Universal Gas Constant = R = 8.314 J/mole K
Required
Volume = V= ?
Solution
PV = n R T
nRT
V=
P
1 × 8.314 × 273
V=
1.01 × 105
𝑉 = 0.0224 𝑚3
𝑉 = 0.0224 × 1000 = 22.4 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
15.4. An air storage tank whose volume is 112 liters contain 3kg of air at a pressure of 18 atmospheres.
How much air would have to be forced into the tank to increase the pressure to 21 atmospheres,
assuming no change in temperature? (Ans: 0.5kg)
Data
Given
Initial Pressure = P1 = 18 Atm
Final Pressure = P2 = 21 Atm
Initial Temperature = T1 = T
Final Temperature = T2 = T
Initial Volume = V1 = 112 liter
Final Volume = V2 = 110 liter
Initial Mass = m1 = 3 Kg
Required
Final Mass = m2 = ?
Mass Escaped = Δm = m 2 - m 1 = ?
Solution
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 m1 T2 m2
P2 V2 T1 m1
m2 =
T2 P1 V1
21 × 112 × T × 3
m2 =
T × 18 × 112
m2 = 3.5 Kg
Δm = m 2 - m 1
Δm = 3.5 – 3
Δm = 0.5 Kg
15.5. A balloon contains 0.04m3 of air at a pressure of 120KPa. Calculate the pressure required to reduce
its volume to 0.025 m3 at constant temperature. (Ans: 1.9 x 105Pa)
Data
Given
Initial Pressure = P1 = 120KPa
Initial Volume = V1 = 0.04m3
Final Volume = V2 = 0.025 m3
Required
Final Pressure = P2 = 21 Atm
Solution
P1 V1 = P2 V2
120 × 0.04 = P2 × 0,025
120 × 0.04
P2 =
0.025
P2 = 192 KPa = 1.9 × 105 𝑃𝑎
15.6. The molar mass of nitrogen gas N2 is 28gm. For 100g of nitrogen, calculate.
(a) The number of moles. (Ans: (a) 3.57 mole)
(b) The volume occupied at room temperature (20°C) and pressure of 1.01 x 105 Pa.
(Ans: (b) 0.086m3 or 86dm3)
Data
Given
The molar mass of nitrogen gas N2 = M = 28gm
Mass of nitrogen gas N2 = m = 100 gm
5 2
Pressure = P = 1.01 x 10 N/m
Temperature = T = 20°C = 20 + 273 = 293K
Universal Gas Constant = R = 8.314 J/mole K
Required
Number of gram mole = n = ?
Volume = V= ?
Solution
a) Number of moles
𝑚 100
𝑛= = = 3.57 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑀 28
b) Volume
PV = n R T
nRT
V=
P
3.57 × 8.314 × 293
V=
1.01 × 105
𝑉 = 0.086 𝑚3
𝑉 = 0.086 × 1000 = 86 𝑑𝑚3

15.7. A sample of a gas contains 3.0 x 1024 atoms. Calculate the volume of the gas at a temperature of
300K and a pressure of 120K Pa. (Ans: 0.104m3)
Data
Given
Number of atoms = N = 3.0 x 1024 atoms
5 2
Pressure = P = 120 KPa = 1.2 x 10 N/m
Temperature = T = 300 K
Universal Gas Constant = R = 8.314 J/mole K
Required
Number of gram mole = n = ?
Volume = V= ?
Solution
a) Number of moles
𝑁 3.0 × 1024
𝑛= = = 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝐴 6.02 × 1023
b) Volume
PV = n R T
 nRT
V=
P
0.5 × 8.314 × 300
V=
1.2 × 105
𝑉 = 0.0104 𝑚3
𝑉 = 0.0104 × 1000 = 10.4 𝑑𝑚3
15.8. Calculate the root mean square speed of hydrogen molecules at 0°C and 1.0 atm pressure. Assuming
hydrogen to be an ideal gas. The density of hydrogen is 8.99 x 10-2 kg/m3. (Ans: 1835.86ms-1)
Data
Given
Pressure = P = 1 Atm = 1.01 x 10 5 N/m2
Density, of the gas = ρ = = 8.99 x 10-2 Kg/m3
Required
Root mean square Velocity = vrms = ?
Solution
1 ̅̅̅2
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣
3
𝐵𝑢𝑡 ̅̅̅̅
𝑣 2 = (vrms )2
1
𝑃 = 𝜌(vrms )2
3
3𝑃
= (𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2
𝜌

3𝑃
√ = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜌

3 × 1.01 × 105
√ = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
8.99 × 10−2
𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟓. 𝟖𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
15.9. Calculate the root mean square speed of hydrogen molecule at 500K (mass of proton= 1.67 x 10-27 kg
and K = 1.38 x 10-23J/molecule.-K) (Ans: 2489.49ms-1)
Data
Given
Mass of proton = mp = 1.67 x 10-27 kg
-27
Mass of Hydrogen molecule = m = 2 mp = 3.34 x 10 kg
-23
Boltzmann constant = K = 1.38 x10 J/Molecule. K
Temperature = T = 500 K

Required
Root mean square Velocity = vrms = ?
Solution
2 1 ̅̅̅2
𝑇= ( mv )
3K 2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 ̅̅̅̅
𝑣 2 = (vrms )2
 3KT
= (vrms )2
m

3KT
√ = vrms
m
−23
3 × 1.38 x10 × 500
vrms =√
3.34 × 10−27

vrms = 𝟐𝟒𝟖𝟗. 𝟒𝟗 𝐦/𝐬

15.10. (a) Determine the average value of the Kinetic energy of the particles of an ideal gas at 10°C and at
40°C. (Ans: 5.86x10-21J, 6.48x10-21J)
(b) What is the Kinetic energy per mole of an ideal gas at these temperatures?(Ans: 3526.57J, 3901J)
Data
Given
o
Temperature = T = 10 C + 273 = 283 K
o
Temperature = T = 40 C + 273 = 313 K
-23
Boltzmann constant = K = 1.38X10 J/Molecule. K
Required
Kinetic Energy of the Particles = KE = ?
Solution (a)
o
i) At 10 C
3KT
K. E =
2
−23
3 × 1.38 × 10 × 283
K. E =
2
K.E = 3529.293 Joule/molecule
o
ii) At 40 C
−23
3 × 1.38 x10 × 313
K. E =
2
K. E = 6.48 x10−21 Joule/molecule
Solution (b)
o
i) At 10 C
3RT
K. E =
2
3 × 8.314 × 283
K. E =
2
K.E = 3529.293 Joule/mole
o
ii) At 40 C
3 × 8.314 × 313
K. E =
2
𝐊. 𝐄 = 3903.42 Joule/mole