WILLIS H.

TRUITT

Realism

I. believed that Plato had two theories of art,

FOR PURPOSES OF THIS ESSAY, I conceive of one representational or realistic, the other
realist theories of art in the following ways.
not.1 Whether Collingwood's view is
accepted or not makes little difference, be-
They attempt to show that art reflects nature
cause most of the time we use this part of
and/or the artificial world of human society.
Plato's philosophy to introduce the problem
Realist theory of art does not necessarily
claim that art mirrors the world, but rather of realism from which we then depart into
considerations of all the ramifications of the
that artists construct a symbolic reflection
of their environment. Further, I conceive of theory.

realist theory of art as an empirical theory,

If we go along with the standard inter-
i.e., its theoretical terms do, or should, have pretation, then Plato held a cognitive theory
empirical reference. And, finally, a realist of artistic representation. He believed that
theory, as I conceive it, functions as a regu- poetry, and art in general, are unsuccessful,
or defective attempts to transmit knowledge.
lative ideal presupposing terms such as "ob-
jective," "accurate reflection," and "distor-This was the result of his requiring artistic
tion." representation to conform to his discursive
When we discuss realism in any systematic
and mentalistic (and essentialist) theories of
fashion we always begin by talking about knowledge and truth. Here I am using the
Plato's theory of art as it is contained interm "essentialism" in two senses: a) the
books III and X of the Republic. It is theremetaphysical abstraction and isolation of the
that the idea of an imperfect imitation ofone true Being from the constantly chang-
an imperfect object is introduced. And from ing multiplicity of appearances, and b) the
identification of this or these individual
this we may draw the conclusion that the
Platonic theory of art was a form of realism. essences as the ultimate objects of knowledge
and truth.
There is an equally plausible interpreta-
tion: that Plato's theory is not realism be- Plato's apparent contempt for the prac-
titioners of the arts stems from his unfavor-
cause art does not imitate ultimate reality at
all, but rather sham reality or appearance. able comparison of artistic representation
But because realism and imitation are so (here imitation) with the philosophical pur-
suit of Truth. It needn't have turned out
closely equated in aesthetics, we typically
begin the discussion of realism with that way as we can see in the case of Aris-
refer-
totle.
ence to the Platonic theory regardless of ourPlato's uneven comparison of art and
philosophy
interpretation of Plato's theory. Of course, as cognitive activities was preju-
these are not the only interpretationsdicedofby his peculiar theory of knowledge.
One might say that Aristotle's essentialism
Plato's views. Collingwood, for example,
was an equally peculiar theory of knowledge
and at
WILLIS H. TRUITT is professor of philosophy itsthe
objects. But it was sufficiently differ-
University of South Florida. ent to lead him to an assessment of art as
 142 TRU ITT

a form of understandingsocialist
of somerealist theories,
import- it is not central to
ance, indeed, of greater allimportance than
theories of realism. All realisms do, how-
plain description. Plato's version
ever, have oneof essen-
thing in common and that
tialism would not allow this because his is that they attempt to show that art reflects
forms were inaccessible to the artist as ob- or imitates the social world or nature in the
jects of knowledge and truth. qualified sense suggested at the beginning
of this paper. Realistic theories also, almost
II.
always, include a test or criterion for es-
On one matter, however, Plato and Aris- tablishing the accuracy of the reflection or
totle were in complete agreement. They imitation. This provides a principle for
both supposed that the arts exercised a pro- determining the quality of work.
found influence on human emotions and Even though the definition of reflection
behavior. Plato took this influence to be or imitation, as well as the test for accuracy,
most pernicious and detrimental to under- in such theories may be relatively loose (it
standing and to social stability. On may not require empirical, descriptive cor-
the
other hand, Aristotle believed it to be of respondence between the work and the sub-
ject) there are obviously many difficulties
positive value in the control of potentially
in such a view. It is mainly for this reason,
anti-social and self-destructive impulses and
I believe, that a number of alternatives to
behavior. Interestingly, but not surprisingly,
realist theories have developed over time.
realists who are socialists have been from
the very start preoccupied with thisThere
socialwould be no sense in cataloging all
of these alternative theories here because I
function of the arts. Brecht, with the pos-
sible exception of Herbert Marcuse, do not intend to discuss them. Rather I
is the
best example of this fascination. will discuss them together as "alternatives"
and try to state how realist theories must
As one might imagine Brecht transposes
the concerns of Plato and Aristotle. He confront and deal with these theories if
wanted to create a form that avoided the realism is to be a viable theory itself.
An independent or detached realist
kathartic and pacifying effect that Aristotle
theory of art is vulnerable at best and
had attributed to art. But in his need to
create a new, non-purgative formprobably
he ac- unintelligible. An independent
cepted katharsis as a characteristic of realist
previ-theory is one that presents itself as
ous art (drama). Correspondingly heanheeds exhaustive and complete account of the
Plato's warning about the undesirable meaning
in- contained in all works of art. It is
fluences that artists may have ona social theory that is detached from a more gen-
stability, and sees it as a challenge toeral theory of culture and history or de-
create
a revolutionary art. This may seem tached
self-from a systematic philosophical out-
contradictory. But it is not, because Brecht as I am aware, no one has ever
look. As far
believed that the main obstacle to a sub- held such a theory, although it has been
versive art (historically speaking) layused as a "straw" theory by opponents of
in the
realism.
fact that traditionally art has embodied theThere are, however, historical
values of ruling classes. Therefore, examples
for of the practice of realism in the
Brecht, to create a revolutionary artextreme
was to form of naturalistic copying, i.e.,
attempts to execute in exact detail a copy
invest it with revolutionary (proletarian)
of the subject. The portraiture of the middle
values and by doing so to rid it of kathartic
elements. In this way he could agree Roman
with Empire is an example.
Aristotle and Plato at the same time, even Attempts to contradict or otherwise refute
though this was not his aim. realist theories usually employ an endless
number of counterexamples of art works
III.
which are clearly "nonrealistic." And such
counterexamples go back to the earliest
Although the question of the relationship
of art to social change was important times.
for The late paleolithic and neolithic
Plato and Aristotle and continues to be in symbolism, which deviated from an earlier
Realism 143

naturalistic tradition, cannot be taken as the origins are traceable to the twelfth century, but
whose most distinctive and earliest manifestation
result of ineptitude on the part of the art-occured in Florence in the thirteenth and four-
ists. At their best, however, counterexamples teenth centuries-the rise of capitalism and the
might show that realism is a false theory,development of an economically and politically
and not even that on the more flexible independent middle class.3
approaches to theory building whichWhat
are I am suggesting is that there are
characteristic of Hilary Putnam's recent
interesting and informative accounts (sub-
work. The main point is that a realist theory
theories) of art ranging from strict formalism
of art cannot stand on its own. It cannot be
to psychoanalysis, but that these had best
satisfied with generalizing on the limited
be registered and tested against more gener-
sphere of artistic meaning. Putnam has
al scientific theories of human society and
recommended an approach to philosophy
culture. When this is done, the immanent
(which I will use here for aesthetics and
meaning or content of the work of art can be
theory of art) which attempts to show thatrelated to aesthetic vocabularies which are
various methods that seem to be opposed consistent with, translatable into, and ex-
are in fact not. The problem of aesthetics
plicable by means of a scientific, realistic,
is that conceptual analyses of art and psycho-
and empirical theory of culture and society.4
logical theories of art have not come to re-
Below I will suggest that a realist theory of
flect a genetic or evolutionary account of
art and historical and dialectical materialism
cultural history and change. Therefore, few,
provide a point of convergence for all such
if any of these analyses reflect changes in
sub-theories. When sub-theoretical analyses
artistic practice. For example, we may
are shown to be surd or irreducible beyond
choose to analyze Giotto's "Massacre of the
Innocents" in terms of the immediate con-
the idiolect in which they are elaborated,
they are either false or require radical
stituents of the work: the biblical story de-
translation into a different vocabulary. This
picted, spatial, and expressive components,
approach might also be applied to the so-
the vertical and horizontal relations of form,
cial sciences in general where isolated and
symbolism, etc. And in each case we may detached analyses of institutions and be-
still want to know which of these analyseshaviors abound and lead to confusion and
is most adequate; or, if they are all equally
unfounded ideological dogmatism.
interesting, what ties them together or which
What we seek after all is a theory that
account is most important (indispensable) in
has the capacity to explain and account for
understanding the work. It is at this time
all artistic deviations from realist depiction.
that we must ask what is the best general
And it must employ consistently realistic
theory of art (as a human activity or social
principles in giving such an account. In
enterprise) to introduce to get answers to
addition it must have the theoretical capac-
the questions above.2
A fuller account of the Giotto mentioned ity to explain the appearance of non-realistic
theories.
which invokes a general theory of art with-
out eradicating significant "sub-theories" isIV.
given by Hanna Deinhard in Meaning and
Expression: The only way that a realist theory can
hope to accomplish a task of such enormity
. . . the pictorial structure fully corresponds to
and complexity is if it is more than a theory
that 'spirit', or that mentality which authors of
diverse persuasions have called variously 'market of art. It must be part of a theory of art
oriented rationality' (Max Weber), 'substantial' history which in turn forms a part of a
rationality (Karl Mannheim), or 'merchants general theory of history. No pre-Marxist
mentality' (A. von Martin). No matter how far theory of art was able to undertake this
apart these authors may be in terms of methods,
task because none were integrated with more
they all are in agreement in one respect, namely,
in seeing this mentality, 'new' when compared to general theories of art history and history
that of the Middle-Ages, as a consequence of the proper. (Hegel's Lectures are not integrated
change in social and economic structure whose with his general system and his theory of
 144 TRU ITT

artistic meaning is not "realist" the traditional

in any categories
case.) of form and con-
Marxist theory of art, i.e., tent.6
historical ma-
terialism, undertakes systematic Even so,explication
attempting to extend this prin-
of the areas cited above. Its claims are: ciple to all art and especially to recent art
and art history is either silly or dishonest.
1. All works of art reflect the stage of develop-
The process by which production and social
ment of the forces of production and the social
development influence artistic representation
relations of production or institutions and values
created and sustained by productive forces andis far more complex and, indeed, too impor-
relations. tant a problem to be treated in so facile a
manner. It is probably no more nor less
2. All non-realist theories of art subjectivize and
mystify the process of art production and the objectionable, however, than Gombrich's
meaning in art. remarkable discovery in his truculent re-
view of Hauser's Social History of Art7 that
capitalism doesn't exist.
The second claim is stated polemically but
its sense, in my opinion, is not too strong.The realist theory of historical material-
In any case, an application of the approach
ism must successfully account for the appear-
recommended here would be helpfulance
in of non-realist theories in order to de-
assessing these and other claims set out fend
in itself. It cannot compete with such
"Marxist theories of art." theories for that would involve an admis-
sion that realist generalization fails. Apart
The most significant criticism of historical
from purely formalistic analyses, which
materialism, as the basis for a realist theory
usually do not claim to be theories of art,
of art, is that its explanations of historical
and theoretical deviations from realism are what traditional sub-theories must be ac-
counted for? They are almost as numerous
not falsifiable. Of course, this is a difficulty
only when we have established what consti- as aestheticians and art historians but we can
tutes falsification. But let us assume, for the
set down the main ones: feeling, emotional
sake of simplicity, that we have agreed on expression,
a intuition, imagination, embodi-
principle of falsifiability. Now we must ask,ment of values, expressiveness, wish fulfill-
why has the criticism been advanced in the ment, play, empathy. Although most of the
first place? Historical materialism is an em-reasons for this proliferation are complex,
at least
pirical theory that admits to refutation, one of them is not.

based on evidence, of any interpretation

V.
of an historic event or artifact. It seems
probable that the criticism was initially
We must remember that the romantic and
aimed at the slight-of-hand maneuvers
post-romantic periods begin a general de-
of some Marxist interpretations ofparture
art. from realistic representation. By the
I have in mind specifically Plekhanov's
late nineteenth and twentieth centuries this
use of the principle of negation.5 When-
tendency has itself proliferated into a se-
ever he encountered an obviously non-
quence of "non-objective" and anti-realist
realistic work, instead of trying to ex- extremes: impressionist, cubist, expression-
plain it, he reverted to metaphysics by ist, surrealist, futurist, anti-art, conceptual
invoking the principle of negation which art (even the fanatical naturalism of the
asserted that such a work reflected the desire early twentieth century is an example). In
on the part of the artist to violate and
order to account for these unorthodox de-
negate the realist tradition. Indeed, suchvelopments,
a new theories were devised. In
claim can neither be proven true nor falsesome cases a new theory arose as a specific
but there is no doubt that the effect of interpretation of a new artistic movement.
l'art pour l'art movement led to artistic (I believe Worringer's theory to have been
developments accurately described by such a response.) Most often however, the
the
"principle of negation." This is the tendency
new theory was framed with sufficient gen-
in what has been termed "non-objective erality so that it could account for any and
art" and "anti-art," i.e., the repudiation of
all departures from realistic representation,
Realism 145

or it took as basic certain psychological,

of investigators) that are compatible with a
physiological, or neurological concepts which realist theory. The convergence of such ex-
made possible the avoidance of the classical planations, or their subsumption, can be
issue of imitation. It is important to notice expected to enrich and extend a realist
that there is no need to suppose, as some theory of art. If, on the other hand, a sub-
Marxists have, that non-realistic theories are theory or explanation attempts an entirely
deliberate attempts to subjectivize and mys- subjective account of its object, an account
tify aesthetics even if that is their effect, forwhich is irreducible (untranslatable), then
each and every theoretical departure from that account is false; it is mystification."
classical realism simply reflects artistic de- The most important thing to notice is that
velopments which resist explanation under what I have written so far is the beginning
the older realistic categories. The question,of genetic theory about art and about theor-
"Why did Western artistic representationies of art or about artistic representation and
depart from realism, its most enduring tra- how people have thought about it. However,
dition?" now becomes the more importantfor a theory of art to be genetic does not
question. This would not be so only if make it distinctive. Many noncognitivist
aesthetic theories are not devised to explain and idiographic theories are genetic in that
the meaning and importance of art. And they I purport to discover and trace the gene-
believe we are interested in doing just this. sis of the creative process from the imagina-
If we take the array of sub-theory types tion, repressed desires and emotions, etc.
mentioned above as being "limiting cases"Perhaps historical materialism (the theory
of a more general theory that supersedes of art of socialist realism as opposed to its
them, then it would seem highly desirable artistic practice) is distinctive inasmuch as
that such a general theory be realistic unless it traces the development of theories about
we are willing to accept a radically mind-art as well as the development of art itself.
dependent (Kantian) interpretation of theBut even that may be claiming too much,
subject matter of aesthetics. This being so,because there have been at least a few non-
the conditionally applied sub-theories of art Marxist theories that were or are designed
tend to converge on a realist theory of art,8 to explain the rise and decline of various
the scientific and empirical basis of which is theoretical interpretations. What is different
(on this interpretation) historical and dia-about historical materialism I will come to
lectical materialism. By convergence I mean in a moment. But first I will suggest that
that it will be possible to assign a referentthey are detached from a general social-
in the general theory (e.g. an ideological orhistorical method and therefore are limited
structural description) to a referent in theto making extremely subjective and idio-
graphic observations about works of art and
realist theory of art (e.g. a reflection term)
which in turn can be assigned to a referentabout theories. Take for example Rudolf
in the sub-theory (e.g. a stylistic term).9 Arnheim's attempt to analyze works by
This kind of procedure is necessary precise- CIzanne and Picasso in terms of the sub-
ly because we abdicate the job of figuringjective tensions between "conscious and un-
out what makes aesthetic sub-theories goodconscious powers," a play of "inner and
when we relegate our assessment of explana- outer forces" rendered in abstraction.12 I
tions to mere psychological or formalisticthink Arnheim is good as far as he goes. But
considerations.10 And since "why" questions the approach of historical materialism en-
and their explanations presuppose interests, ables us to go further because the explana-
we need not apologize for our interest in tion is framed in terms of how material
giving the richest and fullest empirical ex-forces determine cultural expression in gen-
planation of the meaning and importance of eral and individual art production in par-
art.
ticular. Studies concerned solely with indi-
In a word, it is perfectly possible to have
vidual perceptions, or individual emotional
two explanations of a work of art (resulting tensions can be placed in context. And then
from the different perspectives and interests we can come to an understanding of how
 146 TRU ITT

does the drive

works of art echo the material lifetoprocess.
expand the horizons of
Take for example, in contrast to Arnheim,
subject matter reflect fundamental changes
in social relations,
the richer and more complete analyses social needs,
of and social
Cezanne and Picasso achieved by Max values and objectives. For both of these
Raphael in his application of historical and kinds of change, the technical and the social,
dialectical materialist method.13 are the sources of the new experiences and
All of this is not to deny the importance perspectives that require articulation. It is
of idiographic perceptual and psychological exactly this reflective process which leads
historical and dialectical materialists to as-
studies of artists as producers of art because
the psychological study of any individual sert the priority of content over form. It
is the study of his or her society written should also be clear that this relationship
small. A realist theory of art employedcorresponds
as to the assertion of the priority
the method of historical and dialectical ma- of material production over superstructure
terialism acknowledges the value of many and ideology in society in general. But it
other limited explanations of art insofar should
as also be noted that the claim that
they deal with art. The problem is that content seeks new forms does not impugn
these limited explanations and sub-theories formal analyses of artistic structures. Indeed,
have not tried to relate art to nature, cul- formal analysis can lead to remarkable in-
ture and society as a human response to, or sight. But for historical materialism it can
reflection of, these. Therefore, for such never lead to an understanding of the gene-
limiting cases, art becomes an irreducible sis of content and form because formalism,
figment, a mystery, by definition-but not of as an explanation, is not genetic. To contrast
necessity. one method against the other is methodo-
It was Marx himself who insisted that the logically inappropriate and misleading.
"human essence is an ensemble of social Furthermore, that all explanations may be
interest-relative
relations."14 But to understand why art does not mean that some

changes, why there were departuresinterest-relative

from explanation is not true. It
means that its truth may be determined on
realistic representation, involves an analysis
of the times and societies in which these criteria other than interest, i.e., the criteria
recommended above.
changes took place. We need to know more
than the psychology of individual artists. A few more points need to be made. First,
We need to understand them as a class of a realist theory of art does not demand a
producers in which their conscious work copy theory of expression exclusively any-
and its product are the outcome of the real more than a realist epistemology demands
material forces of a culture. a correspondence theory of truth exclusive-
ly.15 What is required in both is the ability
VI.
to translate terms in a limiting sub-theory
into the vocabulary of scientific realism.
In historical times artists have always and
everywhere sought to expand the subject Secondly, what I have argued is that all
matter of their work as well as the media in substantive aesthetic sub-theories converge
which they work. It would be accurate toon realism. But what of the ordinary lan-
say that the history of political suppressionguage accounts of aesthetics given by philoso-
of the arts from Egyptian times to Byzan-phers like Wittgenstein and Weitz? I think
tium, to Nazism and Zhdanovism is a the answer to this question is that the ade-
manifestation of attempts to limit or abolishquacy of the language of a realist theory
and of historical and dialectical materialism
expansion of artistic subject matter (content)
will ultimately be determined in their suc-
or new forms or styles. The drive to break
cess in explanation and in their success as
out of the boundaries of conventional repre-
sentation arises from the need to expressa guide to practice; in their capacity to
new experiences and perspectives. Anddescribe
as and explain the social world in-
innovations in artistic media reflect parallelcluding the fields of culture and the arts.
technical discoveries and inventions, so also Inasmuch as a "use-meaning" critique of the
Realism 147

transition from capitalism to socialism and

language of historical materialism and real-
communism, the last two of which are under-
ist theory can only recommend the substitu-
stood as more rational and advanced stages
tion of another vocabulary by showing that
more language users are habituated to itsof society, should accurately reflect reality.
use, it (such a critique) cannot offer sub-The undesirable effects of politically ad-
ministered art, for which Soviet cultural pol-
stantive objections. And this is for the simple
icy has been notorious from time to time,
reason that it rejects referential criteria,
correspondence method, and truth claims is related to this transition. Because if the
transition to socialism and the construction
altogether for a kind of linguistic Kan-
tianism.16 of a communist society is deflected, if it
appears to be harsh, enforced, sorrowful, and
VII.
oppressive; instead of joyous, uplifting,
Returning to the question of art liberating,
and and creative, then what of the
social change, there seems to be at leastartist?
one Shall he or she be compelled to pro-
recurring confusion in need of clarification.duce heroic apologies and distortions? Or
It has to do with "socialist" realism. When- will it be the task of the artist to ruthlessly
ever the term "socialist realism" is used it expose the real conditions of life? For Marx-
ought to be understood as the name ofists, a acceptance of the second alternative is
policy and not an explanatory theory about imperative. Still the issue is not always this
the development of contemporary and past easy because, for an artist whose conscious-
art. The explanatory theory that is the basisness is drenched in bourgeois individualism,
the task of building socialism will always
for socialist realist policy is historical and
dialectical materialism. Historical and dia- appear alienating and oppressive.
lectical materialism does, indeed, give a
realist account of the arts, in the sense dis-1Principles of Art (London, 1938).
cussed above. But a great deal of unnecessary 2 Compare Hilary Putnam "Is Semantics Possible?"
originally in H. Kiefer and M. Munitz (eds.)
confusion is caused by equating the realistic
Language, Belief and Metaphysics; vol. I, Contem-
analysis of historical and dialectical materi-
porary Philosophic Thought: International Philos-
alism with socialist realism as a policy or an Year Conferences at Brockport (Brockport,
ophy
artistic manifesto. 1970). See also Putnam, Mind, Language and Reality,
philosophical papers, vol. 2, p. 144.
It might be supposed then, that historical
3 Hanna Deinhard, Meaning and Expression
and dialectical materialism as an explan-
(Boston, 1970), p. 34. See also my articles on Max
ation of art historical development is entire-
Raphael who employs a similar methodology in
ly unrelated to socialist realism and that The
it Journal of Aesthetic Education, vol. 5, no. 1
has nothing to do with socialism. This (Jan.
is 1971), 151-161; The British Journal of Es-
thetics, vol. 11, no. 3 (summer 1971), 227-236; and
false. There is an important connection be-
The Philosophical Forum, vol. 3, nos. 3-4 (spring-
tween the two. In Marxism there is alwayssummer 1972), 468-497.
a direct connection between the theoretical 4Compare Putnam, op. cit., p. 146. I believe, al-
and the programmatic, between theory though
and Putnam denies it, that Stephen Toulmin is
working in a similar direction in his volumes
practice. This unity of theory and practice
in aesthetics exists because historical and dia-Human Understanding (Princeton, 1973).
6G. V. Plekhanov, Art and Social Life (London,
lectical materialism is the basis for program- 1953).
matic socialist realism. As a theoretical basis 6See my article, "Free Art" in The Structurist,
No. 11, 1971.
it guides practice by providing principles
7E. H. Gombrich, review of Hauser's Social
for distinguishing decadent and reactionary
History of Art in The Art Bulletin (March, 1953),
art works from progressive ones. As theory88.
it suggests that works which distort, or de- s Again compare Putnam, Meaning and the Moral
part from, accurate reflection (not exact,Sciences, Part I forthcoming.
9The best examples of this kind of termino-
naturalistic imitation) of reality (nature and
logical correspondence are to be found in Max
society) are forms of false consciousness and
Raphael's studies in The Demands of Art (Prince-
should be criticized as such. Therefore, it is
ton, 1968), and in Lukacs's analyses of literature.
argued, all future development of art in the 10 Putnam, op. cit., mss. p. 52.
 148 T R U I T T

"Compare Putnam, ibid., mss. p. 67. and Understanding."

12Art and Visual Perception (Berkeley, 1954). 16 It would not be appropriate to go into this
13 The Demands of Art, op. cit. issue here. For further development of this view
4 Theses on Feuerbach (No. 6). see my paper "Theories of Meaning", Indian R
15 Compare Putnam, op. cit., Part III, "Reference sealch Journal of Philosophy (1976).