Color Diagrams in PDF

Principles of
Electronic
Materials and
Devices
Second Edition

S. O. Kasap

© 2002 McGraw-Hill

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 ODO> orbitals
Valence
(a) electron

Si ion core (+4A)

Si crystal in 2-D
Electron energy

-?+?
Conduction Band (CB)
Empty of electrons at 0 K.
-?
O* Bandgap = -C
-L
Valence Band (VB)
Full of electrons at 0 K.

0
(b) (c)

Fig. 5.1: (a) A simplified two dimensional illustration of a Si atom with

four hybrid orbitals, ODO>. Each orbital has one electron. (b) A simplified
two dimensional view of a region of the Si crystal showing covalent
bonds. (c) The energy band diagram at absolute zero of temperature.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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Fig. 5.2: A two dimensional pictorial view of the Si crystal showing
covalent bonds as two lines where each line is a valence electron.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Electron energy

-?+?
?

CB
-?
DK> -C Free A­ DK
-C hole
Hole A­
-L

VB

0
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.3: (a) A photon with an energy greater than -C can excite an
electron from the VB to the CB. (b) When a photon breaks a Si-Si
bond, a free electron and a hole in the Si-Si bond is created.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 A­
D+

Fig. 5.4: Thermal vibrations of atoms can break bonds and thereby
create electron-hole pairs.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 + CB +
A­ D D
+ +
(a) D -C D (d)
VB

+
+ D A­ A­
D + +
(b) D D (e)

A­
+
(c) + D (f)
D

Fig. 5.5: A pictorial illustration of a hole in the valence band

wandering around the crystal due to the tunneling of electrons from
neighboring bonds.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 -x

Electrostatic PE(x)
V(x)

-x
Electron Energy

CB

CB

VB
Hole energy

VB

x
x=0 x=L
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.6: When an electric field is applied, electrons in the CB and holes
in the VB can drift and contribute to the conductivity. (a) A simplified
illustration of drift in -N. (b) Applied field bends the energy bands since
the electrostatic 2- of the electron is ­A8(N) and 8(N) decreases in the
direction of-N whereas 2- increases.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 (a) (b) (c) (d)
CE) µ (E­Ec)1/2
E E E
Ec+c [1­f(E)]

CB For
Area = ònE(E)dE=n
electrons
Ec Ec nE(E)

EF EF

Ev Ev pE(E)
Area = p
For holes
VB

0
C(E) f(E) nE(E) or pE(E)

Fig. 5.7: (a) Energy band diagram. (b) Density of states (number of
states per unit energy per unit volume). (c) Fermi-Dirac probability
function (probability of occupancy of a state). (d) The product of
g(E) and f(E) is the energy density of electrons in the CB (number of
electrons per unit energy per unit volume). The area under nE(E) vs.
E is the electron concentration in the conduction band.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 +*

Ec Ec Ec
EFn
EFi
EFp
Ev Ev Ev

8*

= > ?

Fig. 5.8. Energy band diagrams for (a) intrinsic (b) n-type and (c) p-type
semiconductors. In all cases, np = ni2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 As+
e­

Fig. 5.9: Arsenic doped Si crystal. The four valence electrons of As

allow it to bond just like Si but the fifth electron is left orbiting the
As site. The energy required to release to free fifth-electron into the
CB is very small.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Electron Energy

CB

-?
~0.03 eV
-@
As+ As+ As+ As+

-L N Distance
into
As atom sites every 106 Si atoms crystal

Fig. 5.10: Energy band diagram for an n-type Si doped with 1 ppm
As. There are donor energy levels just below -?around As+ sites.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 D+
B­ B­

Free
(a)
(b)

Fig. 5.11: Boron doped Si crystal. B has only three valence electrons.
When it substitutes for a Si atom one of its bonds has an electron
missing and therefore a hole as shown in (a). The hole orbits around
the B­ site by the tunneling of electrons from neighboring bonds as
shown in (b). Eventually, thermally vibrating Si atoms provides
enough energy to free the hole from the B­ site into the VB as
shown.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Electron energy
B atom sites every 106 Si atoms

-? N Distance
into
crystal

B­ B­ B­ B­
-=
D+
~0.05 eV
-L
VB

Fig. 5.12: Energy band diagram for a F-type Si doped with 1 ppm B.
There are acceptor energy levels just above -L around B­ sites. These
acceptor levels accept electrons from the VB and therefore create holes
in the VB.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 V(x)

Electrostatic PE(x) = ­eV

Electron Energy -x

Ec
Ed
EF
EFi

Ev

A
B
n-Type Semiconductor

Fig. 5.13: Energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor connected

to a voltage supply of V volts. The whole energy diagram tilts because
the electron now has an electrostatic potential energy as well
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 6 < 6I 6I < 6 < 6E 6> 6E

CB

-.
As+ As As As -. As+ As+ As+ As+ As+ As+ As+ As+
-C -.

VB

(a) 6 = 61 (b) 6 = 62 (c) 6 = 63

Fig. 5.14: (a) Below 6I, the electron concentration is controlled by

the ionization of the donors. (b) Between 6I and 6E, the electron
concentration is equal to the concentration of donors since they
would all have ionized. (c) At high temperatures, thermally generated
electrons from the VB exceed the number of electrons from ionized
donors and the semiconductor behaves as if intrinsic.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 ln(n)

INTRINSIC
slope = ­Eg/2k

Ts IONIZATION
EXTRINSIC slope = ­,
,E/2k
ln(Nd)
Ti
ni(T)
1/T

Fig. 5.15: The temperature dependence of the electron concentration

in an n-type semiconductor.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 600 °C 400 °C 200 °C 27 °C 0 °C
L L L L
1018

Intrinsic Concentration (cm-3) 2.4´1013 cm-3

1015

Ge
1012

109
1.45´1010 cm-3
Si

106 2.1´106 cm-3

GaAs
103
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
1000/6 (1/K)

Fig. 5.16: The temperature dependence of the intrinsic concentration.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 KE = 1
/ mev2 KE > |PE|
e-
2

KE ≈|PE|
rc

As+

KE < |PE|

Fig. 5.17: Scattering of electrons by an ionized impurity

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 50000
mLµT­1.5
Electron Drift Mobility(cm2 V-1s-1) Ge
10000 Nd =1014
Nd =1016 Nd =1013

Nd =1017
1000

Nd =1018
100 Si
Nd =1019

mI µT1.5
10
70 100 800
Temperature (K)

Fig. 5.18: Log-log plot of drift mobility vs temperature for n-type

Ge and n-type Si samples. Various donor concentrations for Si are
shown. Nd are in cm-3. The upper right inset is the simple theory
for lattice limited mobility whereas the lower left inset is the
simple theory for impurity scattering limited mobility.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Drift Mobility(cm2 V-1s-1) 2000

1000

Holes Electrons

100

50
1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
Dopant Concentration, cm-3

Fig. 5.19: The variation of the drift mobility with dopant concentration
in Si for electrons and holes
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 log(s)
Semiconductor

Resistivity
Intrinsic
Metal
Logarithmic Scale

log(n) T

Extrinsic

Lattice Ionization
scattering
mµT ­3/2 mµT 3/2
log(m) Impurity
scattering
1/T
High Temperature Low Temperature

Fig. 5.20: Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity for a

doped (n-type) semiconductor.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 E
CB
Impurities forming CB
EFn
a band
Ec Ec
C(E)

Ev Ev
EFp
VB

= >

Fig. 5.21: (a) Degenerate n-type semiconductor. Large number of donors

form a band that overlaps the CB. (b) Degenerate p-type semiconductor.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Energy
CB

Ec
Ocb(kcb)
DK= -C
Ovb(kvb)
Ev

VB
Distance

Fig.5.22: Direct recombination in GaAs. kcb = kvb so that momentum

conservation is satisfied
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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CB
-?

-H -H -H Phonons
Recombination
-L center

VB

(a) Recombination

CB
-?
-J -J -J
Trapping
center
-L
VB

(b) Trapping

Fig. 5.23: Recombination and trapping. (a) Recombination in Si via a

recombination center which has a localized energy level at -H in the
bandgap, usually near the middle. (b) Trapping and detrapping of
electrons by trapping centers. A trapping center has a localized
energy level in the band gap.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 +*

-?
-@

-L

8*

Fig. 5.24: Low level photoinjection into an n-type semiconductor in

which ,nn < nno
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 ´1016
5.5´ nn = nno+D
Dnn
5´
´1016 nno
pn = pno+D
Dpn
Log(carrier concentration) (cm-3) ´1016
0.5´

Dpn = 0.5´1016
´1010
1.5´ ni ni

´106
4.5´
pno pno

(a) In the dark: np = ni2 (b) In light: np ¹ ni2

Fig. 5.25: Low level injection in an n-type semiconductor does not

affect nn but drastically affects the minority carrier concentration pn.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Illumination

A B C
- - -
- - - - - - - + - + - - - + - - - + - -
-
-
- + +- + - - -
- - - - + - - - - - -
- - - - - + - - + -+ - + - - + - -+ - + - -
- + - - -
- + - - + - - + + - - - - -
+
- - - + - - - + - - + - -
- - -- - - - + - - - + -+ + - + - - + -
- -

n-type semiconductor Illumination with hυ >Eg In dark after

in the dark. creates excess holes: illumination. Excess
pn = pno<< nno pn = pno+∆pn ≈ ∆nn holes are disappearing
by recombination.

Fig. 5.26: Illumination of an n-type semiconductor results in excess

electron and hole concentrations. After the illumination, the
recombination process restores equilibrium; the excess electrons and
holes simply recombine.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 G and pn(t)
Gph

Illumination
0
∆pn(∞)
pno+∆
∆pn(t') = ∆pn(0)exp(-t'/τh)
τhGph

pno
toff Time, t
0
t'

Fig. 5.27: Illumination is switched on at time t = 0 and then off at t = toff.

The excess minority carrier concentration, ∆pn(t) rises exponentially to its
steady state value with a time constant τh. From toff, the excess minority
carrier concentration decays exponentially to its equilibrium value.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Light

L W
V Iph

Fig. 5.28: A semiconductor slab of length L, width W and depth D is

illuminated with light of wavelength l. Iph is the steady state
photocurrent.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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n(x,t) Net electron diffusion flux
Electric current

n(x,t) n1
n2

x x
xo xo-l xo xo+l
x o -l x o +l
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.29: (a) Arbitrary electron concentration n(x,t) profile in a

semiconductor. There is a net diffusion (flux) of electrons from
higher to lower concentrations. (b) Expanded view of two
adjacent sections at xo. There are more electrons crossing xo
coming from left (xo-l) than coming from right (xo+l).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 p(x,t) Net hole diffusion flux
Electric current

x
xo
xo ­l xo +l

Fig. 5.30: Arbitrary hole concentration p(x,t) profile in a

semiconductor. There is a net diffusion (flux) of holes from higher
to lower concentrations. There are more holes crossing xo coming
from left (xo­l ) than coming from right (xo+l ).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Semitransparent electrode
n-Type Semiconductor

Electron Diffusion

Electron Drift
Light N
Hole Diffusion

Hole Drift

-N

Fig. 5.31: When there is an electric field and also a concentration

gradient, charge carriers move both by diffusion and drift. (Ex is the
electric field.)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Exposed n2 n1
Vo
As+ Donor
Ex

Diffusion Flux
Drift
Net current = 0

Fig. 5.32: Non-uniform doping profile results in electron diffusion towards

the less concentrated regions. This exposes positively charged donors and
sets up a built-in field Ex . In the steady state, the diffusion of electrons
towards the right is balanced by their drift towards the left.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 p(x,t)
z
Semiconductor
A
Jh Jh + @Jh y

x x
x+@x

Fig. 5.33: Consider an elemental volume A@x in which the hole

concentration is p(x,t)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 xo n-type semiconductor

Light

Excess concentration
∆pn(0)
∆pn(x)
∆nn(0) Diffusion
∆nn(x)
x
(a)
Currents (mA)
Diffusion
4 ID,h
Drift
Idrift,e
0
ID,e
−4 x (µm)
0 20 40 60 80
(b)

Fig. 5.34: (a) Steady state excess carrier concentration profiles in an

n-type semiconductor that is continuously illuminated at one end.
(b) Majority and minority carrier current components in open circuit.
Total current is zero.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Ec+c
CB
Thermalization

Large hu 3kT
Ec 2
Eg
DK »-C
Ev

VB

Fig. 5.35: Optical absorption generates electron hole pairs. Energetic

electrons must loose their excess energy to lattice vibrations until
their average energy is (3/2)kT in the conduction band.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 x @x Semiconductor

1o

Photon flux in Photon flux out

1(x) 1(x) ­ @1

Fig. 5.36: Absorption of photons within a small elemental volume of

width @x.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 - = (1/micron)
1000
Vacuum *
100
GaAs
CB DK* * 10
Photon )
1
DK) Si
0.1
VB 0.01
)
0.001
C-)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Photon energy (eV)

Fig. 5.37: The absorption coefficient = depends on the photon energy DK

and hence on the wavelength. Density of states increases from band edges
and usually exhibits peaks and troughs. Generally = increases with the
photon energy greater than -C because more energetic photons can excite
electrons from populated regions of the VB to numerous available states
deep in the CB.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Thermalization CB

Trapping Excited State -?

-J
-C Luminescent Center DK<-C
(Activator)

Ground State
-L
DK>-C Recombination
VB

Fig. 5.38: Optical absorption generates an EHP. The electron

thermalizes and then becomes trapped at a local center and thereby
removed from the CB. Later it becomes detrapped and wanders in
the CB again. Eventually it is captured by a luminescent center
where it recombines with a hole emitting a photon. Traps therefore
delay recombination.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Vo

-o

Vacuum
level Metal n-Type Semiconductor
Metal Neutral
.n CB Depletion region semiconductor
.m region
Ec
EFn
W
EFm .m­ .n
Ev
.m­ .n=eV0 CB
VB
.B Ec
EFm
EFn
Ev
Before contact
VB

After contact

Fig. 5.39: Formation of a Schottky junction between a metal and an

n-type semiconductor when .m > .n.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 V Vr

Metal n-Type Semiconductor

e(V0-V) CB
CB
Ec .B e(V0 + V)
Ec
Ev
Ev
VB
VB

(a) Forward biased Schottky (b) Reverse biased Schottky junction.

junction. Electrons in the CB of the Electrons in the metal can not easily
semiconductor can readily overcome overcome the PE barrier .B to enter the
the small PE barrier to enter the semiconductor.
metal. I

1 mA

1 mA

V
0.2 V
10 mA

(c) I­V Characteristics of a Schottky junction exhibits rectifying properties

(negative current axis is in microamps)

Fig. 5.40: The Schottky junction.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Neutral n-type
Depletion semiconductor
Metal region region
W
hK>Eg

CB

EFm Ec

Ev
VB

Vo
-o

External Load

Fig. 5.41: The principle of the Schottky junction solar cell.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 hK>Eg Vo+Vr
->>-o

iphoto

Metal W n-Si
Sampling
Resistor, R

Vr

Fig. 5.42: Reverse biased Schottky photodiodes are frequently

used as fast photodetectors.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 .m .n CB
EFm
Ec
EFn
Ev

VB

Metal n-type Semiconductor

Before Contact

Accumulation Region Bulk Semiconductor

Ohmic Contact

CB
Ec
EFm EFn
Ev
VB

Metal n-type Semiconductor

After Contact

Fig. 5.43: When a metal with a smaller workfunction than an n-type

semiconductor are put into contact, the resulting junction is an ohmic
contact in the sense that it does not limit the current flow.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 (a) (b)
I I

CB CB
Q Q

Ec Ec
EFm EFn EFm EFn

VB VB

Ohmic Contact Ohmic Contact

Region Region
Metal n-Type Semiconductor Metal n-Type Semiconductor

Fig. 5.44: (a) Current from an n-type semiconductor to the metal

results in heat absorption at the junction. (b) Current from the metal
to an n-type semiconductor results in heat release at the junction.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Metal
I Q Cold Junction

e-

DC n-Type Semiconductor
Supply

I
Q Hot Junction
Metal

Metal
I Q Cold Junction
h+

p-Type Semiconductor

I Q Hot Junction
Metal

Fig. 5.45: When a dc current is passed through a semiconductor to

which metal contacts have been made, one junction absorbs heat and
cools (the cold junction) and the other releases heat and warms (the
hot junction).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Body to be Cooled
(Heat Source)
Electrical
Insulation (Good
I Metal
Heat Conductor) h+
e­ I

n-Type Semiconductor p-Type

Semiconductor

I I Metal

Heat Sink

DC Supply

Fig. 5.46: Cross section of a typical thermoelectric cooler.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Heat Absorbed (Cold Side)
Electrical Insulator (Ceramic)

p
n n
p
n
n p
p n
p
p-Type Semiconductor
n-Type Semiconductor Positive (+)
Electrical Conductor (Copper)

Negative (­)
Heat Rejected (Hot Side)

Fig. 5.47: Typical structure of a commercial thermoelectric cooler

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 PE(r)
PE of the electron
around an isolated atom
r

When N atoms are

arranged to form the
crystal then there is an
overlap of individual
electron PE functions.
V(x)
a a
PE of the electron,
0 V(x), inside the crystal
is periodic with a
period a.
x
x=0 a 2a 3a x=L

Surface Crystal Surface

Fig. 5.48: The electron PE, V(x), inside the crsytal is periodic with
the same periodicity as that of the crystal, a. Far away outside the
crsytal, by choice, V = 0 (the electron is free and PE = 0).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 The E-k Diagram The Energy Band Diagram
Ek

CB

CB
Empty Ok
A­ A­
Ec Ec
Eg DK DK
Ev Ev
D+ Occupied Ok D+
VB

VB
k
­F/a F/a

Fig. 5.49: The E-k diagram of a direct bandgap semiconductor such as

GaAs. The E-k curve consists of many discrete points each point
corresponding to a possible state, wavefunctionOk(x), that is allowed
to exist in the crystal. The points are so close that we normally draw the
E-k relationship as a continuous curve. In the energy range Ev to Ec
there are no points (Ok(x) solutions).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 E E

CB
Ec Indirect Band Gap, Eg
Direct Band Gap E Photon CB
g Ec
Ev kcb
Ev
VB
VB kvb
­k k ­k k
(a) GaAs (b) Si
E

CB

Er Ec
Phonons
Ev
VB
­k k
(c) Si with a recombination center

Fig. 5.50: (a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the
maximum of the VB. GaAs is therefore a direct band gap
semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from
the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect band gap
semiconductor. (c) Recombination of an electron and a hole in Si
involves a recombination center.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 -
E E
CB CB
Lattice Lattice
scattering scattering

k1­
k­ k3+
k+ k1+k2+
­k k ­k k

­x kav = 0 x ­x kav > 0 x

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.51: (a) In the absence of a field, over a long time, average of all
k values is zero, there is no net momentum in any one particular
direction. (b) In the presence of a field E in the ­x direction, the
electron accelerates in the +x direction increasing its k value along x
until it is scattered to a random k value. Over a long time, average of
all k values is along the +x direction. Thus the electron drifts along +x.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
 E
Ev
b' b
(a) 8*

­k k

b' b
(b)
8*

­k k

Fig. 5.52 (a) In a full valence band there is no net contribution to

the current. There are equal numbers of electrons (e.g. at b and b')
with opposite momenta. (b) If there is an empty state (hole) at b at
the top of the band then the electron at b' contributes to the
current.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca