Pediatrics Atf

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Developmental Milestones
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
AfraTafreeh.com exclusive
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• Motor, language, and social skills for various ages

• Developmental delay = failure to reach milestones
• Reversible causes:
• Hearing loss
• Lead poisoning
• Often occurs with dysmorphic features
• Facial, limb and other abnormalities
• Down syndrome
• Fragile X (long face, large ears, large testes)
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• Gross motor
• Fine motor
• Language
• Social
• Emotional
• Self-help
• Cognitive
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Gross Motor
• Goal first year: walk
• Newborn babies lie face down
• Motor development proceeds from top down
• Head before legs
Time Milestone Piqsels
2 months Lift head

4 months Roll over
6 months Sit up
9 months Crawl/pull up/stand
12 months Walk
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Fine Motor
• Goal first year: pincer grasp and throw objects
• Newborns: hands in fists
Time Milestone
2 months Open hands/hands together
4 months Grasps rattle
Flikr/Public Domain/Beth Nazario
6 months Transfer objects

Three-finger/clumsy grasp
9 months
Bangs two cubes
Pincer grasp
12 months
Throws objects
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Language/Communication
• Requires hearing
• Goal first year: say ONE word with meaning - “mama” and “dada”
Time Milestone
2 months Coos
4 months Laughs
6 months Babbles
9 months Says “mamamama” and “bababababa”
12 months “Mama” and “Dada”
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Social
Time Skill
2 months Begins to smile at people
4 months Smiles spontaneously
Recognizes faces
6 months
Stranger anxiety
Waves bye-bye
9 months
Separation anxiety
12 months Points
Stranger and Separation Anxiety
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• Stranger anxiety
• Baby becomes upset when unfamiliar person approaches them
• Occurs around six months
• Separation anxiety
• Baby becomes upset when separated from parents
• Occurs by nine months
• Requires object permanence
• Object permanence
• Baby knows objects exist when out of sight
• Occurs by nine months
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2-year-old
• Run and climb two steps
• Two-word phrases
• Two-step commands
• “Give me the ball and then get your shoes.”
• Stacks 6 blocks
• 50- to 200-word vocabulary
• Copy a line
2 3 4 5
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3-year-old
• Ride a tricycle
• Three-word sentences
• 300+ word vocabulary
• Copy a circle
Wikipedia/Public Domain
2 3 4 5
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4-year-old
• Hop
• Copy a cross
• Tells detailed stories
2 3 4 5
Shutterstock
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5-year-old
• Skip
• Copy a triangle
2 3 4 5
Shutterstock
Language www.afratafreeh.com
• Age 2: 50% understandable

Shutterstock
Developmental Delay
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• Global developmental delay

• Failure to meet milestones in ≥ 2 of major domains
• Gross motor, fine motor, language, cognition, or social
• Large differential diagnosis: CNS, metabolic, other
• Hearing loss
• Can present as speech, language, or social delay
Pxhere.com
Red Flags www.afratafreeh.com
Age Features
6 Months No smile, grasp, or roll; poor head control
12 Months Unable to pick up objects; no crawling; no standing; no babbling
Less than 50-word vocabulary; difficulty holding small objects;
2 Years
Can’t climb stairs; not feeding or dressing themselves
Rett Syndrome www.afratafreeh.com
• Neurodevelopmental disorder of females

• Contrast with autism: 4x more common in males
• Initially normal development
• Slow symptom onset 1-2 years of age
• Hallmark: regression of cognitive/motor skills
• Diagnostic criteria for disorder
Pixabay/Public Domain
• Deceleration of head growth

• Loss of motor, intellectual, speech abilities
• Loss of balance (ataxia)
• Repetitive hand movements
• Hand-to-mouth licking
• Grabbing of clothing or hair
• Hand wringing
Genetics
• X-linked disorder
• X-linked dominant: 1 abnormal gene → disease
• 99% cases: sporadic gene mutation
• Girls
• Two X chromosomes
• Random X inactivation → some cells with normal gene
• Males
• One X chromosome: all abnormal genes
• Lethal
Developmental Delay
www.afratafreeh.com
Select Causes
Autism Selective Mutism Hearing Loss

Motor Normal Normal Normal
Language Impaired Impaired Impaired
Stereotyped patterns Won’t speak in
Behavior Does not react to sounds
of behavior specific situations
Primitive Reflexes
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• Present at birth
• Resolve as corticospinal neurons become myelinated
• Can return in adults with neurologic damage
Reflex Description Disappears by

Hand Grip Grasp object placed in palm 3M
Sucking Suck when roof of mouth touched 4M
Moro Extend arms when startled 4M
Rooting Turn heard toward side of cheek stimulus 6M
Galant Stroke spine on side, baby swings torso toward touch 9M
Plantar Dorsiflexion of foot and flexion of toes with plantar stimulation 12M
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Pediatric Screening
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Pediatric Screening
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• American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines

• Bright Futures
Pediatric Screening
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Pediatrics Screening
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• AAP recommendations for screening based on age/condition

• More frequent in children with special risk factors
• Example: hearing loss in children with recurrent otitis media with effusion
Screening www.afratafreeh.com
Select Screening Measures
• Iron deficiency
• Autism
• Hearing
• Vision
• Lead poisoning
• Oral health
• Tobacco, alcohol, substance use (9 years and older)
• Depression (ages 12 to 21 years)
• Poverty
Iron Deficiency www.afratafreeh.com
• Up to 9% toddlers have iron deficiency in US

• Commonly caused by insufficient dietary intake
• Babies have increased iron demand due to growth
• Reduced risk with iron-fortified formula
• Breast milk has some iron
PickPic/Public Domain
Iron Deficiency www.afratafreeh.com
• AAP guidelines: screening at ~1 year of age

• Usual screening: measurement of CBC
• Measures hemoglobin, MCV, RDW
• Iron deficiency: low hemoglobin, MCV; Increased RDW
• Repeated screening if risk factors present Iron Deficiency
• Prematurity or low birth weight (risk of anemia of prematurity)
• High consumption of cow’s milk
• Low consumption of iron-containing foods
Iron Supplementation
www.afratafreeh.com
• Use iron-fortified formula

• For breastfed infants
• Add iron supplement at four months
• Continue until baby eating iron-rich foods
• Avoid cow’s milk until 12 months of age
Public Domain
Autism www.afratafreeh.com
• Screening at 18 and 24 months

• Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised with Follow-Up
• MCT-RF
• Two-stage assessment
• First stage: 20-item parent questionnaire
• Second stage: Follow-up questionnaire administered by health care professional
• Score from 0 – 20 (higher = higher risk)
Hearing Loss www.afratafreeh.com
• Can cause speech, language, and cognitive delays

• Screening at birth (congenital causes)
• Screening in older children (acquired causes)
• Often conductive hearing loss
• Middle ear dysfunction (otitis, fluid)
• AAP: screening age 4 and up
• Office screening tools:
• Tone audiology
• Tympanometry
• Abnormal screen: audiology referral
Pxhere.com
Vision Loss www.afratafreeh.com
• Screening begins ~ age 3

• Also examine eyes for strabismus
• Misalignment of eyes
• Common in children
• Can cause vision problems
• Potentially treatable
Public Domain Public Domain

Hyperlipidemia www.afratafreeh.com
• Once ages 9 to 11
• Again ages 17-21
• None 12 to 16 (puberty)
Public Domain
Drug and Alcoholwww.afratafreeh.com
Use
• Annual screening starting at age 11
• Commonly down with CRAFFT screen
CRAFFT Screening
www.afratafreeh.com
Substance Use Screen for Children
• Car – Have you ever ridden in a car driven by someone who has been using
alcohol or drugs?
• Relax – Do you ever use alcohol or drugs to relax?
• Alone – Do you ever use alcohol or drugs while alone?
• Forget – Do you ever forget things you did while using alcohol or drugs?
• Friends – Do your family or friends ever tell you that you should cut down on your
drinking or drug use?
• Trouble – Have you ever gotten into trouble while you were using alcohol or
drugs?
• Score >2 = high risk adverse outcomes
Depression www.afratafreeh.com

• Patient Health Questionnaire-2 item screen (PHQ-2)
• Any of the following over the past two weeks:
• Little interest or pleasure in doing things
• Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless
Public Domain
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Adolescent Medicine
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Puberty www.afratafreeh.com
• Thelarche: development of breasts

• Estradiol action on breast tissue
• Menarche: first menstrual period
• Spermarche: first sperm production
• Often followed by nocturnal emission
• Pubarche: development of public hair
• Primarily due to androgens from adrenal gland
Dtesh71/Public Domain
Age of Onset
• Girls start puberty 8 to 13 years
• Menarche: 12 to 13 years
• Boys start puberty 10 to 15 years
• First ejaculations: 13 to 14 years
• Pubertal growth spurt
• Girls: 12 years
• Boys: 14 years
PXfuel
Tanner Stages
• Assigns stage number to pubertal development
• Range from stages I to V
• Separate stages for:
• Male genitalia
• Female breasts
• Pubic hair
• Stage I: prepubertal
• Stage V: adult sexual characteristics
• Usually occurs by age 15
Tanner Stages www.afratafreeh.com
Males
Public Domain
Tanner Stages www.afratafreeh.com
Females
Public Domain
Precocious puberty
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• Occurs at early age, usually less than 8-9 years old

• Excess androgens (boys) or estrogens (girls)
• Boys: congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Wikipedia /Public Domain

Delayed pubertywww.afratafreeh.com
• No evidence of puberty by age 12-14 years
• Most common cause: constitutional delay of growth and puberty
• Transient defect in GnRH release from hypothalamus
• Often familial
• Underproduction of androgens or estrogens from hypogonadism:
• Turner (girls)
• Klinefelter (boys)
• Kallman syndrome (GnRH deficiency, anosmia)
Adolescent Screening
www.afratafreeh.com
• HEADSSS interview instrument

• Home
• Education
• Activities
• Drugs
• Sex
• Suicide
• Safety
Drug and Alcoholwww.afratafreeh.com
Use
• Commonly done with CRAFFT screen
CRAFFT Screening
www.afratafreeh.com
Substance Use Screen for Children
• Car – Have you ever ridden in a car driven by someone who has been using
alcohol or drugs?
• Relax – Do you ever use alcohol or drugs to relax?
• Alone – Do you ever use alcohol or drugs while alone?
• Forget – Do you ever forget things you did while using alcohol or drugs?
• Friends – Do your family or friends ever tell you that you should cut down on your
drinking or drug use?
• Trouble – Have you ever gotten into trouble while you were using alcohol or
drugs?
• Score >2 = high risk adverse outcomes
Confidentiality www.afratafreeh.com
• Critical to providing care to adolescents

• Exceptions:
• Sexual or physical abuse
• Suicidal or homicidal thoughts
Minors and Consent for Care
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• Minor: usually defined as person under 18 years of age

• Only parent or legal guardian may give consent
• Exceptions
• Emergencies
• Emancipated minors
• Special situations
Flikr/Public Domain
Minors www.afratafreeh.com
Emergency Care
• Consent not required (implied)
• Care administered even if parent not present
• Care can be administered against parents’ wishes
• Classic example: Parents are Jehovah's Witnesses
• Physician may administer blood products to child
• Do not need court order
Emancipated Minor
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• Minors can attain “legal adulthood” before 18

• Common criteria:
• Marriage
• Military service
• Living separately from parents, managing own affairs
• Emancipated minors may give consent
Minors www.afratafreeh.com
Special Situations
• Most U.S. states allow minors to consent for certain interventions
• May be done without parental consent
• Contraceptives
• Prenatal Care
• Treatment for STDs
• Treatment for substance abuse
Ceridwen/Wikipedia
Abortion www.afratafreeh.com
• Rules on parental notification vary by state

• Some states require parental notification
• Some states allow consent with counseling
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General Pediatrics
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Anticipatory Guidance
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• Given by provider to parents

• Varies by child’s age
• Expected growth and development
• Safety reminders
• Informs parents of child’s needs
• Avoids health problems in children
• Component of the AAP Bright Futures guidelines
Normal Growth www.afratafreeh.com
• Usually occurs in a predictable course
• Influenced by nutrition, health
• Key metrics monitored by pediatricians:
• Weight
• Height
• Head circumference (until 2 years)
• Compared to norms for age group
• Often reported as percentile (10th, 50th, 99th)
Growth Charts www.afratafreeh.com
Height, Weight, Head Circumference
Newborn Weightwww.afratafreeh.com
• Full term babies lose weight after birth
• Up to 10 percent of birth weight
• Occurs in first few days of life
• Usually regained by 10 to 14 days
• Infants double birth weight by four months
• Triple birth weight by one year
• Children gain ~4 to 5 lbs/yr from 2 to puberty
Piqsels
Linear Growth www.afratafreeh.com
• Non-linear with spurts and slowing

• Average length at birth: 20 inches
• Increases 50% by 1 year
• Grow about 2 to 4 inches per year from 1 to 10 years
• Children reach half adult height by 24 to 30 months
• Normal deceleration of height velocity before puberty
• Followed by growth spurt at puberty
Shutterstock
Linear Growth www.afratafreeh.com
• Most common causes of short stature after age two:

• Constitutional growth delay (most common)
• Familial (genetic) short stature
• Both variants of normal
• Constitutional delay of growth and puberty (CDGP)
• Late adolescent growth spurt
• Delayed puberty
• Adult height often normal
Shutterstock
Head Growth www.afratafreeh.com
• Reflects growth of brain

• Small head: microcephaly
• Occipitofrontal circumference < 2SD below age mean
• Large head: macrocephaly
• Occipitofrontal circumference > 2SD above age mean
Shutterstock
Microcephaly www.afratafreeh.com
Selected Causes
• Many, many causes of microcephaly
• Occurs with dysmorphism in genetic disorders
• Abnormal facial, limb features
• Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
• Angelman syndrome (imprinted gene disorder)
• Williams syndrome (deletion on chromosome 7)
Congenital Acquired
TORCH Infections Meningitis
Teratogens (ETOH) Ischemic brain injury
Trisomy 13, 18, 21 Metabolic disorders (hypothyroid)
Macrocephaly www.afratafreeh.com
Selected Causes
• Increased brain size (often familial and present at birth)
• Hydrocephalus
• Hemorrhage
• Mass lesions
• Key test: ultrasound
• For infants with open fontanelles
• Noninvasive
• Can identify ventricular enlargement
• Other tests: head CT or MRI
Freestockphoto.com
Failure to Thrivewww.afratafreeh.com
• Poor growth
• No formal definition
• Fall off weight curve first then height then head
• Organic causes
• Chronic medical illness
• Non-organic causes
• No underlying medical disorder
• Malnutrition
• Poor caregiver support
• Treatment: interdisciplinary care, high calorie feedings
Pediatric Dehydration
www.afratafreeh.com
Severity Symptoms
Sticky or slightly dry oral mucosa
Increased thirst
Mild (3-5%)
Normal vitals
Normal/slightly decreased urine output
Dry oral mucosa
Increased thirst, irritable
Moderate (6-9%) Sunken eyes/fontanelle, reduced skin turgor
Tachycardia, tachypnea, possible hypotension
Decreased urine output
Very dry oral mucosa
Lethargy, coma
Sunken eyes/fontanelle, reduced skin turgor
Severe (>10%)
Cool skin, acrocyanosis
Tachycardia, tachypnea, hypotension
Anuria
Fluid Replacement
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• Mild to moderate dehydration: oral fluids

• Moderate to severe: intravenous fluids
• 20mL/kg bolus of isotonic fluids
• Repeat as needed
Diet www.afratafreeh.com
• Breastfeeding recommended
• Can feed on demand
• Feeds should occur every 2 to 4 hours
• 8 to 12 feeds per day
• Start iron-fortified cereals ~ 6 months
• Baby must be able to sit, hold head up
• Whole milk may be consumed ~12 months
• Avoid juices, sweets
PxFuel.com
Bowel Movements
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• First bowel movement usually within 36 hours of birth

• Ninety percent newborns pass meconium within 24 hours
• First week: about 4 stools per day
• First three months: 2 to 3 stools/day
• Breastfed infants have more stools/day on average
• By two years : mean number of bowel movements under two per day
• After four years : mean number of bowel movements ~ one per day
Urine www.afratafreeh.com
• First week: # wet diapers = age in days

• After first week: > 4 wet diapers per day
• Can start toilet training 18 months
• Most toddlers trained by 3 to 4 years
Sleeping www.afratafreeh.com
• Newborns sleep 3 to 4 hours at a time for about 18 to 20 hours/day

• Sleep through the night by 6 months (usually)
• 1 to 2 naps/day normal up to 4 years of age
• As child gets older: less overall sleep, longer sleep duration
PickPic
Car Seats www.afratafreeh.com
• Age < 2 years: rear-facing car seat in back

• Age 2 – 4 years: forward-facing car seat in back
• Age 4 – 8 years: booster seat in back until 4’9” tall
• Older children < 12 years: back seat belt
• Air bags (front seat) dangerous for < 12 years
Injuries www.afratafreeh.com
• Leading cause of death

• Often predictable and preventable
• Car injuries: car seats and seat belts
• Firearms (guns)
• Gun avoidance (most effective means of prevention)
• Safe handling and storage of firearms
• Bicycle Injuries
• Usually head injuries
• Prevention with bicycle helmets
SIDS www.afratafreeh.com
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
• Sudden death of infant < 1 year of age
• Unexplained by other causes
• Risk factors
• Stomach sleeping
• Maternal smoking during/after pregnancy
• Very young maternal age (< 20)
• Bed sharing (infant/parent)
Pixabay.com
SIDS Prevention www.afratafreeh.com
• Smoking avoidance
• Sleeping prone or on side
• Firm sleep surface
• No extra blankets or pillows
• No bed sharing
BRUE www.afratafreeh.com
Brief Resolved Unexplained Event
• Sudden, brief episode of:
• Cyanosis or pallor
• Absent, decreased, or irregular breathing
• Marked change in tone (hyper- or hypotonia)
• Altered level of responsiveness
• Parents often concerned for SIDS
• No known association between low-risk BRUE SIDS
BRUE www.afratafreeh.com
Brief Resolved Unexplained Event
• Evaluation: history and physical exam
• Low risk features
• Age > 60 days
• Born at gestational age ≥32 weeks
• Only 1 BRUE (no prior BRUE or clusters)
• Duration of BRUE < 1 minute
• No CPR required
• No concerning historical features or physical examination findings
• If all low-risk features: reassurance
• No further testing indicated
• Remind parents of standard SIDS prevention
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Ear Infections and Fever

Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Otitis Media www.afratafreeh.com
• Acute infection of the middle ear
• Usually preceeded by viral upper respiratory tract infection
• Inflammatory edema obstructs Eustachian tube drainage
• Upper respiratory tract bacteria enter middle ear
• Microbial growth occurs
Image courtesy of Harshita Yadav

Microbiology
• S. pneumoniae Strep pneumoniae
• H. influenzae (non-typeable)
• Moraxella catarrhalis
Clinical Features
• Most common complaint: ear pain
• Fever in up to two-thirds of cases
• Hearing loss
• Ear drainage
Shutterstock
Diagnosis
• Clinical diagnosis
• Middle ear effusion PLUS signs of middle ear inflammation
• Tympanic membrane erythema, fever, ear pain
• If signs of inflammation are absent diagnosis is OME
• Bulging of the tympanic membrane
• Most specific sign of acute inflammation
Michael Hawke MD/Wikipedia

Treatment Indications
• All adults
• Children under 2 years old
• Children over 2 years old with certain features
• Toxic appearance
• Temperature > 102.2°F
• More than 48 hours of ear pain
• Healthy children over 2 years old with mild symptoms may be observed
Treatment
• First-line therapy: amoxicillin
• Amoxicillin-clavulanate in special cases
• History of recurrent AOM
• Recent treatment with a beta-lactam antibiotic
• Covers H. influenza resistant to amoxicillin
• Surgical therapy in recurrent cases
Myringotomy www.afratafreeh.com
Tympanostomy Tube
• Surgical incision of tympanic membrane
• Prevents negative pressure in Eustachian tube
• Allows drainage of fluid
• Allow topical antibiotics
• Perforations often close rapidly
• Tympanostomy tubes
• Straight, narrow polyethylene tubes
• Can remain in ear for months
Public Domain
Complications Mastoid Process of Temporal Bone
• Tympanic membrane perforation
• Mastoiditis
• Infection of mastoid process
• Labyrinthitis
• Vertigo, nausea, vomiting
• Intracranial infection
• Conductive hearing loss
Mastoiditis www.afratafreeh.com Mastoiditis
• Bacterial infection of mastoid air cells

• Found in mastoid bone (part of temporal bone)
• S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, and S. aureus (MRSA)
• Erythema, tenderness, and swelling
• Diagnosis: clinical plus CT scan
• Treatment: antibiotics
• Vancomycin or linezolid (cover MRSA)
• Other agents often added based on patient features
• Myringotomy +/- tympanostomy tube
B. Welleschik
Otitis Media withwww.afratafreeh.com
Effusion
Serous Otitis Media
• Middle ear serous effusion
• No evidence of infection
• Often develops after AOM
• Often asymptomatic
• Most common symptom: hearing loss
• Often resolves with observation
• Tympanostomy tubes used in some cases
Otitis Media with Effusion

ENT Lecture Series
Youtube
Otitis Externa www.afratafreeh.com
Swimmer’s Ear
• Infection and inflammation of external auditory canal
• Occurs in all age groups
• More common in summer among swimmers
• Ear pain with pruritus and discharge
• May cause hearing loss
• Most common bacteria
• P. aeruginosa (38%)
• S. epidermidis (9%)
• S. aureus (8%)
Image courtesy of Harshita Yadav

Otitis Externa www.afratafreeh.com
Swimmer’s Ear
• Tenderness with ear tug
• External ear canal edematous and erythematous
• May see white, patchy exudate
• Treatment: ear drops
• Antibiotics (ciprofloxacin/ofloxacin)
• Steroids
• Antiseptics: alcohol or acetic acid
Public Domain
Wikipedia
FWS www.afratafreeh.com
Fever Without a Source
• Acute febrile illness (temp > 100.4°F)
• Previously healthy child
• Etiology not apparent based on H&P
• Common problem in pediatrics
• Management varies by age
• Under 90 days: high risk sepsis
• 3 months and older: lower risk
Shutterstock
FWS in Infants www.afratafreeh.com

Up to 90 Days of Age
• High risk of sepsis or septic shock
• Many possible underlying infections
• Urinary tract infections
• Bacteremia
• Meningitis
• Pneumonia
• Septic arthritis
• Osteomyelitis
• Approach varies by specific age group
Infants < 7 Days
• High risk of infant bacterial infection
• Must consider neonatal sepsis and meningitis
• Blood, urine and CSF cultures
• Treatment: empiric antibiotics
• Usually ampicillin/gentamycin
• Covers GBS, Listeria, Enterococcus, and most E. coli
Infants 7 to 90 Days
• Work-up based on age
• Younger infants (< 60 days)
• Full sepsis workup most cases
• Hospitalization often necessary
• Empiric antibiotics often used
• Older infants (60 to 90 days)
• Limited workup in some cases
• Inpatient or outpatient management
Children 3 to 36 Months
• Management based on child appearance
• Ill-appearing
• Weak cry
• Constant cry
• Falls to sleep or will not rouse
• Pale, cyanotic, mottled or ashen skin
• Drug mucous membranes
• Sunken eyes
• No smile
• Anxious, dull, or expressionless face
• Well-appearing
Pixabay.com
Children 3 to 36 Months
• Most well-appearing children have self-limited viral illness
• In many cases, can be monitored as outpatients without further testing
• Ill-appearing children may have occult bacterial infections
• May require full work-up, hospitalization, empiric antibiotics
Public Domain
FUO www.afratafreeh.com
Fever of Unknown Origin
• Fever > 101°F
• At least eight days
• No apparent diagnosis
• Broad differential
• Unusual infections (mycobacterial, fungal)
• Autoimmune disease (SLE, Kawasaki)
• Malignancy
• Detailed history and physical
• Many additional tests possible
www.afratafreeh.com
Vaccination
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Types of Vaccineswww.afratafreeh.com
• Toxoid vaccines
• Chemically modified protein toxin
• Cannot cause infection (non-toxic)
• Elicits strong immune response
• Tetanus, diphtheria
• Conjugate vaccines
• Bacterial polysaccharide
• Conjugated to protein (e.g., tetanus toxoid)
• Hemophilus influenza type B
Public Domain
• Killed (inactivated) viral vaccines
• Virus killed (inactivated) by a chemical
• Viral replication not possible Rs are Alive
• Polio, hepatitis A, influenza (shot), rabies
• Can be used in immunocompromised MMR
• Live, attenuated viral vaccines
• Weakened viral vaccines
Varicella
• Replicate poorly inside the body Rotavirus
• MMR, varicella, rotavirus
• Others: oral polio, intranasal influenza
• Cannot be given to immunocompromised
• Not used in pregnancy
• Monovalent
• Protects against a single strain/pathogen
• Polyvalent
• Protects against two or more strains/pathogens
• Divalent
• Trivalent
• Quadrivalent
Public Domain
Childhood Vaccines
www.afratafreeh.com
Contraindications and Precautions
• Contraindications
• Prior severe allergic reaction to vaccine
• Precautions
• Moderate to severe febrile illness
Shutterstock
Childhood Vaccines
www.afratafreeh.com
• Immunization before 6 weeks: weak response

• Magnitude of antibody response higher with older age at first dose
• Vaccines in babies require multiple doses to generate lasting response
Pixnio.com
www.afratafreeh.com
Hepatitis B www.afratafreeh.com
• “Recombinant vaccine”
• Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)
• Produced through recombinant DNA in yeast cells
• Only vaccine given first 24 hours of life
• Infection can be passed mother to baby
• Newborn infection often leads to chronic disease
• Booster doses 1 month and 6 months
• Hepatitis B is for newborn Babies
Hepatitis B www.afratafreeh.com
• If mother is known HepB +

• HBIG + HBV vaccine
Øyvind Holmstad/Wikipedia
1-Year Vaccines www.afratafreeh.com
• Must wait until 12 months of age

• Avoid neutralization by maternal antibodies (disappear by 6-9 months)
• Earlier age for vaccination increases risk of vaccine failure
• MVA vaccines
• Measles, mumps and rubella (MMR)
• Varicella
MVA1
• Hepatitis A
MMR www.afratafreeh.com Measles
Measles, Mumps, Rubella
• Live, attenuated virus vaccine
• Combined to decrease number of shots
Mumps
Varicella www.afratafreeh.com
Chickenpox
• Prevents chickenpox
• Live, attenuated virus vaccine
• May cause mild illness
• Licensed in 1995
• Given at 12 months and 4 years
• Post-exposure prophylaxis
• Give vaccine
Hepatitis A www.afratafreeh.com
• Self-limited hepatitis: symptoms resolve < 6 months

• Inactivated hepatitis A vaccine (most formulations)
• More common outside US
2-4-6 Month Vaccines
www.afratafreeh.com
• DTaP
• Hib
• Pneumonia (PCV13)
• Polio (IPV)
• Rotavirus
• All given at 2, 4 and 6 months
• Most require a booster dose later
Flikr/Public Domain
DTaP Vaccine
Diphtheria
www.afratafreeh.com
Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Acellular Pertussis
• Combined to decrease number of shots
• Corynebacterium diphtheriae
• Pharyngitis with great-white membrane
• Systemic disease can cause cardiomyopathy
• Toxoid vaccine
• Clostridium tetani
• Blocks inhibitory neurons
• Muscle spasms
• Trismus (lockjaw)
• Toxoid vaccine
DTaP Vaccine www.afratafreeh.com Whooping Cough
Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Acellular Pertussis
• Bordetella pertussis
• Causes whooping cough
• Initial vaccines (1900s): killed whole-cell B. pertussis
• Often caused fever, drowsiness, and anorexia
• Rare cases of encephalopathy
• Acellular vaccines (1990s)
• Purified bacterial components and inactivated toxin
• Fewer side effects
• Special contraindication: encephalopathy
• Rare cases of pertussis vaccine encephalopathy
• Occurs within 7 days
• Should not receive additional doses of pertussis vaccines
Hib Vaccine www.afratafreeh.com
Hib Chocolate Agar
• Haemophilus influenzae serotype b (Hib)
• Bacterial meningitis and pneumonia
• Epiglottitis
• Fever, sore throat, stridor
• Conjugate vaccine
• Hib capsular polysaccharide with protein carrier
• Either tetanus toxoid or N. meningitidis protein complex
PCV13 Vaccine www.afratafreeh.com
• Streptococcus pneumoniae
• Causes pneumonia, meningitis, bacteremia and otitis media
• Conjugate vaccine Pneumonia
• Polysaccharides from 13 serotypes
• Conjugated to diphtheria toxoid
• Adult vaccine: PPSV23
• Contains 23 pneumococcal polysaccharides
• Does not elicit immune response in children under 2
• Asplenia: both vaccines administered
IPV Vaccine www.afratafreeh.com Child with Polio
• Polio virus vaccine

• Prevents poliomyelitis
• IPV = inactivated polio vaccine (Salk vaccine)
• Inactivation of wild type poliovirus strains
• Virus treated with formalin
• Viral proteins remain as antigens
• OPV = oral polio vaccine (Sabin vaccine)
• Used in developing countries Boston Children’s Hospital Archive
• Live attenuated virus
• Virus grown in cells causing mutations
• Rarely causes vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP)
Rotavirus Vaccine
www.afratafreeh.com
• Causes gastroenteritis
• Live, attenuated viral vaccine
• Oral vaccines: drops in child’s mouth
• Introduced 2006
• Contraindicated with history of intussusception
• Fatal intussusception after second dose reported
• Occurred in infants with intussusception after first dose
Public Domain
Influenza Vaccinewww.afratafreeh.com
• Influenza A and B viruses
• Quadrivalent
• Two strains of influenza A and two strains of influenza B
• Updated each year with new strains
• Contain strains expected in flu season (fall/winter)
• Given annually to children > 6 months old
• Vaccine Influenza = VI months
Public Domain
• Inactivated influenza vaccines (IIV)
• Intramuscular injection
• Only contraindication: prior severe allergic reaction to vaccine
• Live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV)
• Licensed in 2012
• Administered intranasally
• Must be healthy and nonpregnant
• Only ages 2 through 49
• No thimerosal
• May contain residual amounts of egg protein
Public Domain
Cautions
• Sensitivity to thimerosal
• Preservative used in multi-dose vials
• Can use single-dose vials without thimerosal
Public Domain
Eggs www.afratafreeh.com
• Most flu vaccines manufactured using eggs

• Contain small amounts of egg protein ovalbumin
• Amount of egg proteins very low in modern vaccines
• Studies indicate severe allergic reactions unlikely
• Patients with allergies can receive influenza vaccine
• No need for skin testing or special observation
• No need to screen for egg allergies
Wallpaperflare
Meningitis Vaccines
www.afratafreeh.com
• Neisseria meningitidis
• Polysaccharide vaccines with toxoid
• MenACWY
• Quadrivalent vaccine: types A, C, W, and Y
• Infection requires throat colonization
• Does not occur until adolescence
Public Domain
• All patients 11 to 18 years old
• Others at increased risk for invasive meningococcal disease
• Neisseria = 11 years old
Meningitis Vaccines
www.afratafreeh.com
• MenB
• Monovalent vaccine against type B
• Newer vaccine
• ≥ 10 years old at increased risk
• Complement component deficiencies
• Anatomic or functional asplenia
• Exposed to an outbreak
HPV Vaccine www.afratafreeh.com HPV
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
• HPV types 16 and 18
• 70 percent of cervical cancers worldwide
• 90 percent of anal cancers
• HPV types 6 and 11
• Anogenital warts
• 9-valent vaccine available since 2016 in US
• Types 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58
• ACIP Guidelines
• Ages 11 to 12 years
• Females (1A) ad males (1B)
Lee, Makin, Mtengezo, and Malata

HPV Vaccine www.afratafreeh.com
• If start before 15 years

• Two doses
• Zero
• 6 to 12 months
• If start 15 or later
• Three doses
• Zero
• Two months
• Six months
TdaP www.afratafreeh.com
Tetanus, Diphtheria and Pertussis
• Different from DTaP
• Contains Td not DT
• Td = tetanus toxoid with reduced diphtheria toxoid
• Used as a booster
• Given at age 11 as booster
• Puncture wounds after age 11
• Td given as booster immunization
• If more than 10 years since last tetanus immunization
Premature or Low Birth Weight Babies
www.afratafreeh.com
• Do not delay or dose adjust vaccinations

• Immunize according to chronologic age
• Normal schedule
• One exception: first dose HepB
• HepB at hospital discharge or 30 days of age
• Whichever earlier
www.afratafreeh.com
Pediatric Rashes
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Impetigo www.afratafreeh.com
• Superficial bacterial skin infection

• Macules → papules → rupture → erosions
• “Honey-colored” crust
• Highly contagious
CNX OpenStax/Wikipedia
Impetigo contagiosa (non-bullous)
• Traditional, most common form
• Face and extremities
• Caused by S. aureus
• Also “Beta-hemolytic step” – mostly S. Pyogenes
• Limited: topical antibiotics (Mupirocin)
• Extensive: dicloxacillin or cephalexin
• Return to school 24 hours after starting treatment
CNX OpenStax/Wikipedia
Bullae
Other Forms
• Bullous impetigo
• Trunk commonly involved
• S. aureus
• Ecthyma Public Domain
• Crusted sores with ulcers
Ecthyma
Shutterstock
Morbilliform Rash
www.afratafreeh.com
• Resembles measles
• Diffuse maculopapular rash
• Macule: flat skin lesion ≤ 1 cm
• Papule: raised bump ≤ 1 cm
• Adults: usually drug reaction
• Children: usually viral infection Public Domain
• Roseola
• Measles
• Rubella
Public Domain
Roseola Infantum
www.afratafreeh.com
• Five days of high fever

• May develop febrile seizures
• Fever breaks → rash develops
• Child feels well with rash
• Parents may worry child has measles
• In measles: sick during rash
• Benign, self-limited
• No longer contagious when afebrile 24hrs
Shutterstock
Measles www.afratafreeh.com
Rubeola
• RNA viral infection
• Highly contagious – respiratory/airborne spread
• Incubation: 6 to 21 days after exposure
• Prodrome: 2 days to 1 week
• Fever (may be as high as 104°F)
• 3C’s: Cough, Coryza, Conjunctivitis
• Koplik spots: small, white lesions in mouth
• Koplik spots precede exanthem
Rubeola
• Exanthem: days after fever onset
• Classic maculopapular rash
• Starts at head → spreads to feet
Shutterstock
Measles www.afratafreeh.com Viral Pneumonia
Complications
• Diarrhea (most common complication)
• Otitis media: 5 to 10 percent of cases
• Pneumonia
• Most common cause of death in children
• Measles encephalitis
• Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis
• Demyelinating disease triggered by infection
• Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)
• YEARS after infection
• Personality changes, odd behavior, dementia
Outbreaks
• 2014 outbreaks in U.S. among unvaccinated children
• Can spread to vaccinated children
• Vaccine 95% effective
• Test of choice:
• Measles IgM
• Not positive first few days of infection
• Treatment: mostly supportive
• Vitamin A
• Deficiency prolongs infection
• Virus may cause deficiency
• Ribavirin: weak evidence of benefit
Rubella www.afratafreeh.com
German measles; 3-day measles
• Also acquired by inhalation of respiratory droplets
• Mild, low-grade fever
• Maculopapular rash (1-5 days after fever)
• Starts on face, spreads to trunk and extremities
• Characteristic lymphadenopathy
• Posterior cervical
• Posterior auricular
• No cough, coryza, conjunctivitis or Koplik spots
• No specific treatment
• Causes congenital rubella syndrome
Scarlet Fever www.afratafreeh.com
Strawberry Tongue
• Rash following pharyngitis
• Skin reaction to S. pyogenes erythrogenic toxin
• Fever, sore throat, diffuse red rash
• Many small papules (“sandpaper” skin)
• Starts head/neck → expands to cover trunk
• Classic finding: strawberry tongue
• Eventually skin desquamates
• Palms and soles are usually spared
Image courtesy of Afag Azizova/Wikipedia

Scarlet Fever www.afratafreeh.com
Parvovirus www.afratafreeh.com
• Single-stranded DNA virus

• B19 is predominant parvovirus in humans
• Four important syndromes
• Fifth disease in children
• Arthritis in adults
• Aplastic crisis in sickle cell anemia
• Hydrops fetalis
Fifth Disease www.afratafreeh.com
Erythema infectiosum; slapped cheek disease
• Mild fever and rash in children
• Outbreaks among school aged children
• Fever, runny nose
• Followed by rash (few days later)
• Cheeks look like they have been slapped
• Face rash often followed later by rash on trunk/limbs
• Self-limited: no diagnostic test or treatment
• Adults may catch this: mild arthralgia/arthritis
Contact Dermatitis
www.afratafreeh.com
• Type IV hypersensitivity reaction Contact Dermatitis

• Many possible allergens:
• Poison ivy or oak
• Iodine
• Rubber
• Nickel or other metals
• Erythematous papules and vesicles
• Oozing may occur
• Severe pruritus
• Treatment: topical or oral corticosteroids
Diaper Rash www.afratafreeh.com
• Most common skin rash infants

• Usually form of contact dermatitis
• Moist environment irritates skin
• Erythematous patches
• Spares inguinal creases
• Diagnosis: clinical
• Treatment:
• Maintain clean skin
• Topical barriers/ointments
Kezha Zutso /slideshare

Candida www.afratafreeh.com
• Beefy red plaques

• Satellite papules
• Commonly involve the skin folds
• Diagnosis: clinical or KOH prep
USMLEpathslides/Tumblr
Molluscum Contagiosum
www.afratafreeh.com
• Molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV)

• Highly contagious
• Transmitted skin to skin
• Firm, dome shaped papules
• Central umbilication/indentation
• Resolves over weeks/months
• Treatment (optional):
• Cryotherapy
• Curettage
• Cantharidin (topical agent)
Public Domain Wikipedia/Public Domain

Chickenpox www.afratafreeh.com
• Primary varicella zoster infection

• Prodrome: fever, malaise, or pharyngitis
• Generalized vesicular rash within 24 hours
• Pruritic
• Macules (flat) → papules (raised) → vesicles (fluid)
• Lesions can develop pus → crusted papules
• Lesions in different stages
• Treatment: valacyclovir or acyclovir
• No longer contagious when lesions crusted
Acne www.afratafreeh.com
• Inflammation of hair follicles and sebaceous glands

• Exocrine glands in skin in dermis
• Secrete oily substance called sebum
• Often contain hair follicles (“Pilosebaceous unit”)
• Complex, multifactorial etiology
Wikipedia/Public domain
• Sebaceous glands enlarge at puberty

• ↑ androgens → ↑ sebum
• Adolescent acne: boys > girls
• Men with androgen insensitivity: no acne
• Women with excess androgens (PCOS): acne
• Increased sebum and keratin
• Keratinocytes line hair shafts → keratin
• Blocks ducts
• Bacterial growth behind blockage
Dtesh71/Public Domain
Propionibacterium acnes
• Sebum: growth medium for bacteria
• Propionibacterium acnes
• Cutibacterium acnes
• Anaerobic bacterium
• Normal skin flora
• Comedones: small, flesh-colored papules

• Clogged pores
• Open comedones: blackheads
• Closed comedones (by skin): whiteheads
• Inflammatory lesions (papules/pustules)
• Scarring and hyperpigmentation may occur
Shutterstock
• Affects most hormone-responsive glands

• Face, neck, chest, upper back
Shutterstock
Treatment
• Benzoyl peroxide (topical)
• Breakdown keratin, unblocks pores (comedolytic)
• Bactericidal to P. acnes
• Antibiotics
• Decrease P. acnes colonization of skin
• Clindamycin and erythromycin
• Oral contraceptive pills
• Progestins: antiandrogen effects
• Retinoids (vitamin A derivatives)
Benzoyl Peroxide
Isotretinoin www.afratafreeh.com
Accutane
• 13-cis-retinoic acid
• Decreases keratin production in follicles
• Less follicular occlusion Before Isotretinoin After Isotretinoin
• Highly teratogenic
• OCP and/or pregnancy test prior to use
• Topical or oral forms
Public Domain
www.afratafreeh.com
Newborn Hyperbilirubinemia
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Bilirubin Metabolism
www.afratafreeh.com
Heme Unconjugated Bilirubin Conjugated Bilirubin

(Indirect Bilirubin)
(Direct Bilirubin)
Neonatal Bilirubin
www.afratafreeh.com
• Most newborns: unconjugated (indirect) hyperbilirubinemia

• Fetal red cells have short lifespan
• ↑ turnover of fetal red cells
• Immature liver (↓ metabolism)
• Low levels intestinal flora
• Levels peak 2 – 4 days after birth
• Normal adult total bilirubin < 1.0 mg/dL
• Normal infant peak ~ 8 mg/dL
Unconjugated Bilirubin
(Indirect Bilirubin)
Indirect Hyperbilirubinemia
www.afratafreeh.com
• Commonly causes neonatal jaundice

• Jaundice usually develops > 2 to 3 mg/dL
• Jaundice below umbilicus or icterus
• Signs of markedly increased bilirubin
• Bilirubin measurement
• Bilirubinometer (shines light on skin)
• Blood test
• Neurologic damage: bilirubin level > 25mg/dl
Bhutani Nomogram
www.afratafreeh.com
• Used to identify infants at risk of severe hyperbilirubinemia

• Interventions and follow-up testing based on risk zone
©2004 by American Academy of Pediatrics

Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia Pediatrics
2004;114:297-316
BIND www.afratafreeh.com
Bilirubin-Induced Neurologic Dysfunction
• Unconjugated bilirubin soluble in fats
• Crosses blood-brain barrier
• Acts as a neurotoxin
• Basal ganglia; brain stem nuclei
• Bilirubin level > 25mg/dl
• Initially causes lethargy and hypotonia
• Untreated:
• Coma and seizures
• Opisthotonos/retrocollis
Andwhatsnext/Wikipedia
Opisthotonos and Retrocollis
www.afratafreeh.com
• Opisthotonos
• Spasm of back
• Head and legs bend backward Opisthotonos
• Trunk arches forward
• Retrocollis
• Backward arching of neck
Shutterstock
Kernicterus www.afratafreeh.com
Chronic bilirubin encephalopathy (CBE)
• Permanent neurologic damage from hyperbilirubinemia
• Cerebral palsy
• Hearing loss
• Gaze abnormalities
• Dental hypoplasia
www.afratafreeh.com
Treatment
• Phototherapy
• Exposes skin to light of specific wavelength
• Converts bilirubin to lumirubin
• Isomerization (same chemical formula; different structure)
• More water soluble
• Allows excretion without conjugation
Jim Champion/Flikr
www.afratafreeh.com
Causes
• Physiologic
• Breast milk jaundice
• Brest feeding jaundice
• Hemolysis
• Rare causes
Breast Milk Jaundice
www.afratafreeh.com
• Persistence of benign neonatal hyperbilirubinemia

• Occurs in breast-fed babies
• Beta-glucuronidase in breast milk
• Increase in GI absorption of unconjugated bilirubin
• Jaundice appears day 3 to 4
• Bilirubin peaks within 2 weeks
• Declines to normal levels by 12 weeks
• Baby will be feeding well and appear healthy
• Usually mild and does not require treatment
Breast Milk Jaundice
www.afratafreeh.com
Unconjugated Bilirubin
Enterohepatic
Circulation
Conjugated Bilirubin B-glucuronidase
Liver
Excretion Conjugated Bilirubin

Intestines
Breastfeeding Jaundice
www.afratafreeh.com
• Inadequate lactation
• Inadequate intake of fluids and calories
• Increases enterohepatic circulation (↓ stool)
• Jaundice appears 1st week of life
• Hypovolemia and weight loss
• Signs of volume depletion on exam
Irene/Wikipedia
Hemolysis www.afratafreeh.com
• Often causes jaundice first 24 hours of life

• Feared cause: erythroblastosis fetalis
• Rh-negative mother
• Rh-positive baby
• Maternal IgG crosses placenta
Databese Center for Life Science

www.afratafreeh.com
Rare Causes
• Crigler-Najjar
• Congenital hypothyroidism
• Galactosemia
• Spherocytosis
• Sepsis
Direct Hyperbilirubinemia
www.afratafreeh.com
Conjugated Hyperbilirubinemia
• Always pathologic
• Biliary obstruction
• Biliary atresia
• Liver disease
Shutterstock
www.afratafreeh.com
Delivery Room Care

Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Delivery Room Care
www.afratafreeh.com
• Dry and stimulate

• Clear airway if needed
• Provide warmth (blankets)
• Skin-to-skin contact with mother (warmth)
• Additional interventions after mother-child bonding
DerringUndo
Apgar Scores www.afratafreeh.com
• Assigned to children at time of birth

• Assessed at 1 and 5 minutes after birth
• Score of 0, 1, or 2 for each of the following:
• Appearance
• Pulse
• Grimace
• Activity
• Respiratory
• 90% newborns have scores 7 – 10
• Scores < 7 require further evaluation
Apgar Scores www.afratafreeh.com
Neonatal Resuscitation
www.afratafreeh.com
• Normal newborn vitals:

• RR: 40 to 60/min
• HR: 120 to 160/min
• Bradycardia
• Marker of baby’s respiratory efforts
• Major cause in newborns: hypoxia
• Primitive “diving reflex”
Neonatal Resuscitation
www.afratafreeh.com
• Apnea/gasping and heart rate < 100 bpm

• First step: positive pressure ventilation
• Intubation
• Chest compressions
• Epinephrine via umbilical vein Neonatal Resuscitation Program
• Labored breathing or cyanosis with heart rate ≥ 100 bpm

• Clear airway
• Use pulse oximetry to monitor O2
• Administer supplemental oxygen
TTN www.afratafreeh.com
Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn
• Respiratory distress in immediate newborn period
• Tachypnea (respiratory rate greater than 60/min)
• Cyanosis
• Increased work of breathing
• Slow clearance of fetal alveolar fluid (pulmonary edema)
• Common after caesarean delivery without labor
• Lack of physiologic stimulation to clear lungs
Patrick J. Lynch
TTN www.afratafreeh.com
Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn
• CXR: pulmonary edema
• Usually benign and self-limited condition
• Treatment: supportive
• Oxygen/CPAP if needed
• Rarely requires high oxygen (>40%)
• Should resolve within 24 hours
Patrick J. Lynch
Neonatal Hypoglycemia
www.afratafreeh.com
• Transient low blood sugar: normal after birth

• Maternal glucose lost → baby begins glycogen breakdown
• Usually falls first 2 hours then recovers
• Persistent hypoglycemia can occur
• Preterm infants or fetal growth restriction
• Large for gestational age
• Diabetic mothers
• May cause irritability, lethargy, rarely seizures
• Blood sugar not routinely checked unless symptoms
• Treatment: feedings
Pixabay
Polycythemia of the Newborn
www.afratafreeh.com
• Newborns normally have increased red cell mass

• Fetus in a relatively hypoxic environment in utero
• Usual hematocrit healthy infants: 61%
• Splenomegaly normal in newborns
• Polycythemia: hematocrit > 65%
• Occurs in 1 to 5% of newborns
• Most common cause: delayed cord clamping
• Delayed cord clamping (↑ cord RBCs)
• More likely with IUGR/placental insufficiency
• Preeclampsia, SGA, post-term babies

Polycythemia of the Newborn
www.afratafreeh.com
• Usually asymptomatic
• Increased viscosity can obstruct blood flow
• Rarely may cause symptoms
• Hypoglycemia (excessive RBC glucose utilization)
• Hyperbilirubinemia
• Lethargy or poor feeding
• Treatment:
• Observation
• Hydration/glucose
• Rarely partial exchange transfusion

Neonatal Sepsis www.afratafreeh.com
• Fever
• Irritability
• Risk factors:
• Chorioamnionitis
• Preterm delivery
• Prolonged membrane rupture
• Intrapartum fetal tachycardia
• Meconium-stained amniotic fluid
• Apgar < 6 (36x increased risk!)
Neonatal Sepsis www.afratafreeh.com
• Diagnosis: blood culture
• Usually ampicillin/gentamycin
• Covers GBS, Listeria, Enterococcus, and most E. coli
PPHN www.afratafreeh.com
Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn
• Pulmonary vascular resistance should fall at birth
• Oxygen to lungs → PVR falls
• Persistent high PVR → shunting → hypoxemia
• Fetal shunts persist (foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus)
• Apparent during first 24 hours of life
• Respiratory distress and cyanosis
• Low Apgar scores
• Often co-occurs with meconium-stained amniotic fluid
• Usually occurs in term infants
PPHN www.afratafreeh.com
Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn
• CXR: usually clear lungs
• Diagnosis: echocardiography
• Treatment:
• Supportive care
• 100% oxygen (↓ PVR)
• Inhaled nitric oxide
• Intravenous sildenafil
Public Domain
Neonatal Respiratory Distress
www.afratafreeh.com
• Transient tachypnea of the newborn

• Caesarean delivery without labor
• Respiratory distress syndrome
• Preterm infants
• Persistent pulmonary hypertension
• Term infant
• Meconium-stained amniotic fluid
FreeStockPhotos.biz
www.afratafreeh.com
Newborn Nursery
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Newborn Nursery
www.afratafreeh.com
Eye Care
• Erythromycin ophthalmic ointment
• Prevents gonococcal eye infection
• Not effective against chlamydial conjunctivitis
• Prevention is diagnosis/treatment of chlamydia in mother
Neonatal Conjunctivitis
www.afratafreeh.com
Ophthalmia Neonatorum
Day Cause Treatment

Chemical irritation from eye ointment
0-1 Self-limited
Classically caused by silver nitrate (not used in US)
Gonococcal; gram-negative diplococci
2-5 IM Ceftriaxone
Purulent exudates, eyelid swelling
Chlamydial
5-14 Oral erythromycin
Watery, mucopurulent discharge
HSV
5-14* Acyclovir
Serous (pale-yellow transparent) discharge
* Can occur up to 6 weeks after birth

Newborn Nursery
www.afratafreeh.com
Vitamin K
• Single IM dose
• Prevents vitamin-K deficient bleeding
• Sterile GI tract at birth
• Insufficient vitamin K in breast milk
• Risk of neonatal hemorrhage
Ernest F/Wikipedia
Newborn Nursery
www.afratafreeh.com
Hepatitis B Vaccine
• Only vaccine given first 24 hours of life
• Infection can be passed mother to baby
• Newborn infection often leads to chronic disease
Newborn Nursery
www.afratafreeh.com
Umbilical Cord
• Clamp and cut at birth
• Keep stump dry
• No need to sterilize
• Bacteria can help cord separate
• Omphalitis:
• Infection of umbilicus/surrounding tissue
• Polymicrobial
• Risk of sepsis
• Treatment: IV broad-spectrum antibiotics
Umbilical Granuloma
www.afratafreeh.com
• Most common cause of an umbilical mass

• Soft, moist, and pink
• Treatment: topical silver nitrate
Public Domain
Newborn Nursery
www.afratafreeh.com
Screening
• Pulse oximetry
• Screen for hypoxemia
• Congenital heart disease
• Blood spot test
• Many conditions
• Congenital hypothyroidism
• Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
• Phenylketonuria
• Hearing
Shutterstock
Newborn Nursery
www.afratafreeh.com
Feeding
• Frequent feeding to avoid hypoglycemia
• Full-term babies lose weight after birth
• Up to 10 percent of birth weight
• Occurs in first few days of life
• Usually regained by 10 to 14 days
• Infants double birth weight by four months
• Triple birth weight by one year
Flickr/Public Domain
Newborn Nursery
www.afratafreeh.com
Monitoring
• Glucose
• Monitor for hypoglycemia in high-risk infants
• Preterm
• Small for gestational age
• Infants of diabetic mothers
• Bilirubin
• Bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction (BIND)
• Visual assessment for jaundice
• Transcutaneous bilirubin measurement
• Total serum bilirubin measurement
Flikr/Public Domain
Newborn Nursery
www.afratafreeh.com
Circumcision
• Elective procedure
• May reduce risks of:
• Penile cancer
• UTIs
• Foreskin disorders (inflammation/fibrosis)
• Transmission of HIV/HPV/HSV
• Procedural risks
• Bleeding/infection
• Glans injury
• Urethrocutaneous fistulas (urine leakage)
Wikipedia/Public domain
Breastfeeding www.afratafreeh.com
Breast Milk Contents
• Lactose
• Antimicrobial components
• Antibodies (mostly IgA – passive immunization)
• Macrophages
• Lymphocytes
• Lactoferrin (anti-microbial)
• Lysozymes (breaks down bacterial cell walls)
• Low vitamin D content
• Vitamin D supplementation recommended for breast-fed babies
Public Domain
Benefits to Child
• Lowers risk of infant infections (GI, pulmonary)
• Possible long-term benefits
• Some studies show reduced allergies, diabetes, obesity
Achoubey/Wikipedia
Benefits to Mother
• Decreased risk of breast and ovarian cancer
• Possible decreased risk of cardiovascular disease
• Maternal-infant bonding
• Faster childbirth recovery
• Enhanced weight loss
• Longer postpartum anovulation
• Cost saving compared to formula
Contraindications
• Herpetic breast lesions
• HIV or HTLV infections
• Chemotherapy or radiation
• Drug or alcohol use
• Galactosemia in infant
Ibrahimi O., et al. Acute Onset Vesicular Rash.

Am Fam Physician 2010 Oct 1; 82(7):815-816
Used with Permission
FPIES www.afratafreeh.com
Food Protein-Induced Enterocolitis Syndrome
• Food hypersensitivity reaction
• Most commonly due to protein in cow’s milk or soy
• Usually formula-fed infants Soy Beans and Soy Milk
• Rare in exclusively breastfed babies
• Starts shortly after birth
• Vomiting and diarrhea
• Dehydration and failure to thrive
• Treatment: elimination of trigger substance
• Usually resolves by 3 years old
Pixabay
FPIAP www.afratafreeh.com
Food Protein-Induced Proctocolitis
• Also food hypersensitivity reaction to protein
• Also starts shortly after birth
• Half of affected babies are exclusively breast fed
• Cow’s milk: most common trigger
• Consumed by mother or from formula
• Infant appears well
• Main clinical feature: blood-streaked loose stools
• May have other evidence of allergic disease (eczema)
• Treatment: elimination of trigger substance
Shutterstock
www.afratafreeh.com
Preterm and Postterm Infants

Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Special Newbornwww.afratafreeh.com
Groups
• Prematurity
• Postterm pregnancy
• Small for gestational age
Prematurity www.afratafreeh.com
• Birth before 37-weeks gestation

• Term: 38 weeks or more
• “Late preterm:” 34 to 37 weeks
• “Extremely preterm:” <28 weeks
• Associated with many newborn complications
• Milestones may be delayed during childhood
• Use corrected age for milestones until 2 years old
Corrected age: Actual age – week premature (before 40)

Immediate Newborn Complications
• Hypothermia
• Less white adipose tissue (insulation)
• Less brown adipose tissue (heat generation)
• Large ratio surface area to weight (lose heat easily)
• Hypoglycemia
• Hypotension
Nevit Dilmen/Wikipedia
Immediate Newborn Complications
• Hyperbilirubinemia
• ↑ unconjugated bilirubin
• May lead to newborn jaundice
• Hypocalcemia
• In utero calcium from mother
• Newborn hypocalcemia common
• Usually recovers over 24 hours
• More common in premature babies
Neonatal RDS www.afratafreeh.com
Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• Lungs “mature” when adequate surfactant present
• Occurs around 35 weeks
• Lecithin–sphingomyelin ratio (L/S ratio)
• Both produced equally until ~35 weeks
• Ratio > 2.0 in amniotic fluid suggests lungs mature
Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• Surfactant deficiency
• High surface tension → atelectasis
• Decreased lung compliance
• Hypoxemia/↑ pCO2 (poor ventilation)
• Poorly responsive to O2
• Lungs collapsed (alveoli)
• Intrapulmonary shunting
• Diagnosis: clinical plus CXR
• CXR: diffuse ground glass appearance
Public Domain
Risk Factors
• Prematurity
• Maternal diabetes
• High insulin levels decrease surfactant production
• Cesarean delivery Cesarean Delivery
• Baby spared stress response at delivery
• Reduced fetal cortisol
• Reduction in surfactant
Prevention and Treatment
• Preterm delivery: betamethasone
• Corticosteroid
• Given to mother to stimulate surfactant production
• Treatment: surfactant
• Administered via endotracheal tube
Complications
• Patent ductus arteriosus
• Hypoxia keeps shunt open
• Bronchopulmonary dysplasia
• Oxygen toxicity
• Alveolarization does not progress normally
• Respiratory problems during infancy
• Often improves during childhood
Public Domain
Retinopathy of Prematurity
www.afratafreeh.com
• Underdeveloped retinal vessels before birth

• Neovascularization in the retina
• Increased risk: exposure to high oxygen content
• Retinal detachment → blindness
• Diagnosis: retinal exam
• Treatment (severe cases):
• Laser therapy
• VGEF inhibitors
Public Domain
Apnea of Prematurity
www.afratafreeh.com
• Immature respiratory control

• Cessation of breathing for at least 20 seconds
• Respiratory pauses with desaturation and/or bradycardia
• Treat with nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP)
• Methylxanthine therapy
• Caffeine or theophylline
• Blocks adenosine receptors
• Adenosine inhibits respiratory drive
• Treatment will cause tachycardia
Patrick J. Lynch
Necrotizing Enterocolitis
www.afratafreeh.com
• Intestinal necrosis and obstruction

• Usually terminal ileum or colon
• Can lead to perforation and infection
• Most (90%) cases in preterm infants
• Associated with antibiotic therapy
• Often in formula-fed babies
• Risk factor: Non-human milk
Mikael Häggström/Public Domain

Necrotizing Enterocolitis
www.afratafreeh.com
• Feeding intolerance
• Abdominal distention
• Diagnosis: X-ray (alternative: CT)
• Pneumatosis intestinalis
• Gas in the bowel wall
• Pathognomonic finding of NEC in newborns
• Treatment:
• Supportive care
• Antibiotics
• Surgery
Pneumatosis Intestinalis
www.afratafreeh.com
Public Domain
GERD www.afratafreeh.com
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disorder
• Can occur in any newborn
• More common in premature babies
• Multifactorial mechanisms
• Clinical manifestations
• Nonspecific irritability
• Vomiting
• Failure to thrive Wikipedia/Public Domain
• Diagnosis: usually clinical suspicion (challenging)

• Treatment: diet, positioning, medications
Intraventricular Hemorrhage
www.afratafreeh.com
• Hemorrhage into lateral ventricle

• Hypotonia
• Loss of spontaneous movements
• Seizures, coma
• Germinal matrix problem
• Highly vascular area near ventricles
• Prematurity: poor autoregulation of blood flow here
• Full-term infants: decreased vascularity
• Diagnosis: cranial ultrasound www.mrineonatalbrain.com
Used with permission
Intraventricular Hemorrhage
www.afratafreeh.com
Immune Function
• Cellular immunity impaired
• ↓ T-cells and B-cells at birth
• Some babies have neutropenia
• Risk of infection/sepsis
Mgiganteus/Wikipedia
Long-term Complications
• Increased mortality and morbidity
• SIDS
• Leading cause infant mortality 1 month to 1 year in US
• Increased risk with preterm birth or low birth weight
• Increased risk of neurocognitive problems
• Cognition
• Social skills
• Behavioral and emotional skills
• Growth impairment
• Impaired respiratory function
Postterm Pregnancy
www.afratafreeh.com
• Delivery at > 42-weeks gestation

• ↑ risk of short-term newborn complications
• Usually results in macrosomia (large baby)
• Fetal growth restriction may occur beyond 40 weeks
• Placental insufficiency
• Fetal malnourishment may occur
• Rarely causes umbilical cord compression
• Leads to neonatal asphyxia
• Possible neurologic damage
Shutterstock
Dysmaturity Syndrome
www.afratafreeh.com
• Occurs in babies with marked intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)

• Can occur in postterm pregnancies and SGA babies
• Rarely seen in modern era due to elective delivery
• Placenta insufficiency and malnourishment Newborn Vernix
• Characteristic appearance at birth:
• Long, thin arms and legs
• Dry, “parchment-like” skin
• Peeling, loose skin
• Long toenails and fingernails
• Baby alert with “wide-eyed” look
• Decreased/absent vernix
Meconium Aspiration Syndrome
www.afratafreeh.com
Meconium
• Respiratory distress
• Meconium-stained amniotic fluid (MSAF) at birth
• Tachypnea and cyanosis
• More common if pregnancy lasts beyond 40 weeks
• Maintenance oxygenation and ventilation
• Empirical antibiotics
Small for Gestational Age
www.afratafreeh.com
Low Birth Weight
• Less than 2500 grams (5.5lbs) or 10th percentile
• Occurs in ~10% of term babies
• Caused by IUGR
• Increased risk of:
• Neonatal mortality
• Newborn complications
• Lower birth weight → greater risk complications
Small for Gestational Age
www.afratafreeh.com
Newborn Complications
• Perinatal asphyxia
• Chronic undernourishment from placenta
• Contractions at birth → hypoxia
• Hypothermia
• Hypoglycemia
• Impaired immune function
• Hypocalcemia
• Polycythemia
Nevit Dilmen/Wikipedia
Large for Gestational Age
www.afratafreeh.com
• Greater than 4000 grams (8.8lbs) or 90th percentile

• Associations:
• Maternal diabetes (gestational or preexisting)
• Maternal pre-pregnancy weight
• Excessive maternal weight gain
Øyvind Holmstad/Wikipedia
Large for Gestational Age
www.afratafreeh.com
Complications
• Macrosomia associated with birth injuries Shoulder Dystocia
• Maternal complications
• Vaginal lacerations
• Severe postpartum hemorrhage
• Increased likelihood of cesarean delivery
• Infant complications
• Shoulder dystocia
• Brachial plexus injury
• Clavicular fracture
www.afratafreeh.com
Child Abuse
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Child Maltreatment
www.afratafreeh.com
• Child (physical) abuse

• Sexual abuse
• Emotional abuse
• Child neglect
Child Abuse www.afratafreeh.com
• Injury to a child by parent or caregiver

• Commonly affects children under 1 year of age
• Perpetrator usually closest family member (mother)
• Often identified by healthcare providers
Child Abuse Injuries
www.afratafreeh.com
History
• Reported minor trauma → major injury
• Caregiver history changes over time
• Severe injury blamed on siblings/pets
www.afratafreeh.com
Bruising
• Most common abuse injury
• Multiple bruises
• Buttocks, trunk, ear, neck
Thirteen Of Clubs/Flikr
www.afratafreeh.com
Fractures
• Often identified by skeletal survey
• X-rays of all bones
• Multiple fractures in different healing stages
• Rib fractures
• Long bone fractures in baby
Gilo1969/Wikipedia
www.afratafreeh.com
Retinal Hemorrhage
Head Trauma
• “Abusive head trauma”
• “Shaken baby syndrome”
• Retinal hemorrhages
• Subdural hematoma
Public Domain
Selected Risk Factors
• Parent factors
• Single, young parents
• Lower parental level of education
• Parental substance or alcohol abuse
• Parental psychiatric illness
• Child factors
• Unplanned pregnancy
• Unwanted child
• Learning disabilities, behavioral problems
Diagnosis and Management
• Standard imaging tool: skeletal survey
• X-rays of all bones in the body
• Head CT if head trauma suspected
• Ensure child safety
• Remove child from caregiver
• Contact authorities
• Treat injuries
Child Sexual Abuse
www.afratafreeh.com
• Most common pre-puberty (9-12 years old)

• Perpetrator usually male known to child
• Trauma to mouth, anus, genitals
• Sexually transmitted infection
Emotional Abusewww.afratafreeh.com
Psychological Abuse
• Child feels worthless, unloved
• Verbal abuse
• Criticism
• Intimidation (scaring child)
• Humiliation
• Confinement for prolonged periods as punishment
Child Neglect www.afratafreeh.com
• Common form of child maltreatment

• 50% cases reported to child protection services
• Inadequate food, shelter, supervision, affection
• Poor clothing and hygiene
• Underweight or malnourished
• Must be reported to protective services
• All 50 states have laws requiring physician reporting
www.afratafreeh.com
Pediatric Orthopedics
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip
www.afratafreeh.com
• Abnormal development of acetabulum and proximal femur

• Hip laxity common in newborns
• Most will outgrow this
• Persistent laxity may require treatment
• Mechanical instability of hip
• Often detected in 1st months of life
• Leg length discrepancy
• Asymmetric inguinal folds
• Hip instability on exam
• Can lead to early osteoarthritis in adulthood
Public Domain
Hip Instability www.afratafreeh.com
• Ortolani
• Hip abducted while pushing trochanter anteriorly
• Dislocated hip: palpable clunk
• Barlow
• Hip adducted
• Dislocatable hip: palpable clunk
• American Academy of Pediatrics:
• Screen infants up to three months of age
Shutterstock
www.afratafreeh.com
Diagnosis
• Often runs in families
• Clinical diagnosis with imaging confirmation
• Less than 4 months: ultrasound of hip Hip Ultrasound
• X-rays have limited value
• Bones are cartilaginous and not ossified
• More than 4 months: X-ray
www.afratafreeh.com
Treatment
• Abduction splint (Pavlik harness)
• Reduction
• Surgery
• Complications:
• Early osteoarthritis
• Avascular necrosis
Public Domain
SCFE www.afratafreeh.com
Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis
• Slippage of overlying end of femur
• Epiphysis slips posteriorly
• Most common hip disorder in adolescence (~13 yrs)
• Periods of rapid growth shortly after puberty onset
• Groin pain and limp on affected side
Normal SCFE
• Limited hip motion
• Orthopedic emergency
• Diagnosis: X-ray (ice cream falling off cone)
• Treatment: surgical femoral head pinning
Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease
www.afratafreeh.com
• Idiopathic avascular necrosis Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease

• Hip disorder in children (~6 years)
• Abnormal blood flow to femoral head
• Often presents as a painless limp
• Contrast with SCFE
• Subacute/insidious onset
• Usually over 1 month
• Contrast with other hip disorders
James Heilman, MD/Wikipedia

Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease
www.afratafreeh.com
Diagnosis and Treatment
• X-ray Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease
• Insensitive
• May be normal in early disease
• MRI: very sensitive
• Treatment:
• Avoid weight bearing
• Splinting
• Rarely requires surgery (controversial)
• Often resolves (bone heals)
• Can lead to early osteoarthritis
James Heilman, MD/Wikipedia

Scoliosis www.afratafreeh.com
• Lateral curvature of the spine

• Common in adolescents (> 10 years old)
• “Early onset” scoliosis occurs before this age (rare)
• Common in females in thoracic spine
• May lead to chronic back pain and deformity
• Severe cases: restrictive lung disease
• Diagnosis:
• Inspection
• Adams forward bend test
• X-ray
Shutterstock
Adams Forward www.afratafreeh.com

Bend Test
• Patient bends forward at waist until spine parallel ground
• Patient observed from the back
Shutterstock
Scoliosis www.afratafreeh.com
Treatment
• Based on Cobb angle and skeletal maturity
• Smaller angles may not progress
• Skeletally immature patients may outgrow scoliosis
• Observation
• Smaller angles (< 20°)
• Bracing
• Surgery
• Larger angles (> 50°)
Shutterstock
Osgood-Schlatterwww.afratafreeh.com
Disease
Tibial tuberosity avulsion
• Overuse injury in children (usually 9 to 14)
• Pain and swelling at tibial tubercle
• Insertion point of patellar tendon
• Secondary ossification center of tibia
• Chronic avulsion (pulling)
• Usually benign, self-limited condition
Shutterstock
Metatarsus Adductus
www.afratafreeh.com
• Most common congenital foot deformity

• Medial deviation of forefoot (“C shape”)
• Toes point inward
• Usually resolves spontaneously
Public Domain
Talipes equinovarus
www.afratafreeh.com
Club Foot
• Evident at birth
• Caused by deformity of talus
• Medial deviation of forefoot
• Foot supination
• Plantar surface turned inward
• Usually isolated (80% cases)
Talus Bone
• Non-isolated cases:
• Trisomy 18
• Spina Bifida
• Other disorders
Public Domain
Talipes equinovarus
www.afratafreeh.com
Treatment Ponseti Method Casting
• Stretching
• Casting and bracing
• Ponseti method
• Achilles tenotomy
• Done after casting
• Releases tightness in Achilles tendon
Madilyn Seely/Slideplayer
Lower Extremitywww.afratafreeh.com
Alignment
• Varus: bow-legged
• Valgus: knock-kneed
• At birth varus alignment is normal
• Standing/walking: amount of varus increases
• Early walkers have more varus alignment
• By 24 months: alignment usually neutral
Shutterstock
Lower Extremitywww.afratafreeh.com
Alignment
• After 24 months: alignment becomes valgus
• Maximum valgus at 4 years
• After 4 years valgus alignment decreases
• By 7 years: permanent slight valgus
Shutterstock
Genu Varum www.afratafreeh.com
• Genu = knee
• Genu varum normal from birth until ~ 3 years
• Pathologic after 3 years
• Blount disease (most common cause)
• Skeletal dysplasia
• Rickets
• Systemic diseases affecting bone
Shutterstock
Blount Disease www.afratafreeh.com
• Abnormal growth plates near medial tibia

• Etiology poorly understood
• Diagnosis: clinical plus X-ray
• Treatment: bracing or surgery
Public Domain
Skeletal Dysplasias
www.afratafreeh.com
• Disorders of skeletal development

• Achondroplasia
• Pseudoachondroplasia
• Metaphyseal chondrodysplasia
Shutterstock
Rickets www.afratafreeh.com
• Calcium, phosphate or vitamin-D deficiency

• Poor mineralization of bone in children
• Bowed legs is a classic finding
Michael L. Richardson, M.D./Wikipedia

Genu Valgum www.afratafreeh.com
• After 24 months: alignment becomes valgus

• Maximum valgus at 4 years
• After 4 years valgus alignment decreases
• By 7 years: permanent slight valgus
• Pathologic valgus (rare) after 7 years:
• Often posttraumatic
• Other rare causes
Shutterstock
Flat Feet www.afratafreeh.com
Pes Planus
• Normal in babies
• Does not cause pain
• Requires evaluation only if limited range of motion
Shutterstock
www.afratafreeh.com
Child Psychiatry
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Autism Spectrumwww.afratafreeh.com
Disorder
• Neurodevelopmental disorder
• Exact cause unknown
• Associated with TORCH infections
• Rubella, CMV
• Abnormal social skills
• Communication/interaction
• Repetitive behavior patterns
• Limited interests and activities
Hepingting/Flikr
Disorder
Diagnostic Criteria
• Deficits in social interaction in multiple settings
• Failure of back-and-forth conversation
• Reduced sharing of interests, emotions
• Abnormal eye contact or body language
• Difficulty making friends
• Lack of interest in peers
Disorder
Diagnostic Criteria
• Restricted, repetitive patterns
• Repetitive movements, use of objects
• Insistence on sameness, unwavering adherence to routines
• Preoccupation with certain objects
• Symptoms must impair function
• Symptoms must be present in early development
• Often diagnosed about 2 years of age
• Symptoms sometimes present earlier but unnoticed
• Symptoms not accounted for by other causes
• Intellectual disability, learning disorder, deafness
Disorder
Other Features
• Intellectual impairment
• Variable
• Some skills weak (i.e. verbal communication, reasoning)
• Savants
• Some patients have special skills in one area
• Memory, music, art, math
• Classic example: determining day of week for given date
Disorder
Clinical Features
• Often identified by pediatrician
• Issues with behavior, language, socialization
• Failure to reach developmental milestones
• Not gesturing or babbling by 12 months
• No two-word phrases at 2 years
• Referral to ASD specialists for diagnosis
Disorder
Clinical Features
• More common among males
• Four times > females
• Increased head circumference
• 25% of cases: greater than the 97th percentile
Ephert/Wikipedia
Disorder
Associated Disorders
• Fragile X syndrome
• X-linked trinucleotide repeat disorder
• Long face, big ears, large testes
• Down’s syndrome
• Rett’s syndrome
• Neurodevelopmental disorder of girls
• Initially normal development
• Regression of cognitive/motor skills
• Repetitive hand movements
Disorder
Treatment
• Early behavioral intervention
• Behavioral management
• Occupational therapy (teaching skills for daily activity)
• Speech therapy
• No specific effective medical therapy
• Medications only for symptoms
• Hyperactivity
• Depression
• Two FDA-approved medications (antipsychotics)
• Risperidone
• Aripiprazole
ADHD www.afratafreeh.com
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
• Exact cause unknown
• Limited attention
• Hyperactivity
• Poor impulse control
• Normal intelligence on testing
• But may have difficulty in school
amenclinicsphotos ac/Flikr
Diagnostic Criteria
• Frequent symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity
• Present in more than one setting (school/home)
• Persist for at least six months
• Present before age of 12
• Impairs social/school functioning
• Excessive for developmental level of the child
Diagnostic Criteria
Epidemiology
• Four times more common in males
• Most cases among children 6 to 12 years old
• Symptoms persist to adulthood up to 2/3 of cases
marviikad/Flikr
Treatment
• Behavioral interventions (rewards, time out)
• Behavioral therapy
• Stimulants
• Atomoxetine
• Alpha-2 agonists
• Best treatment: therapy plus medication
• Better than either alone
Stimulants www.afratafreeh.com
• ADHD associated with decreased CNS dopamine activity

• Increase CNS dopamine and norepinephrine activity
• Increase CNS levels in synapses
• Improve ADHD symptoms
• ADHD children stimulated by activity
• Drugs relieve need to self-stimulate
Dopamine Norepinephrine
• Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
• Amphetamine (Adderall)
• Dexmethylphenidate (Focalin)
Amphetamine
Methylphenidate Dexamethylphenidate
Adverse Effects
• Loss of appetite
• Weight loss
• Insomnia
• Abuse potential
Atomoxetine www.afratafreeh.com
• Considered a non-stimulant treatment for ADHD

• Selective norepinephrine re-uptake inhibitor
• No direct effects on dopamine systems in CNS
• Dopamine effects may cause euphoria
• Less abuse potential
• May have less insomnia, loss of appetite
Norepinephrine Atomoxetine
Alpha-2 Agonistswww.afratafreeh.com
• Clonidine
• Guanfacine
• Decrease norepinephrine release
• Sedating and calming
Neuron
Prefrontal Cortex
Tourette Syndrome
www.afratafreeh.com
Tic Disorder
• Neurologic disorder
• Occurs in children
• Hallmark: recurrent tics
• Sudden, quick repetitive movements or speech
• Commonly co-occurs with other disorders
• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) – 60%
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) – 30%
Tourette Syndrome
www.afratafreeh.com
• Motor tics
• Sudden, quick movements
• Eye blink
• Head jerk
• Grimace
• Speech (phonic) tics
• Sudden, quick speech, usually few words
• Coprolalia: obscene language
Tourette Syndrome
www.afratafreeh.com
Diagnostic Criteria
• Based on clinical criteria
• Tics for at least one year
• Onset before 18 years (DSM-5 criteria)
• Multiple motor tics
• One or more phonic tics
• Tics occur many times a day
• Tics not be explained by another cause
Tourette Syndrome
www.afratafreeh.com
Treatment
• Behavioral therapy (especially if OCD, ADHD)
• Antipsychotics
VMAT
• Haloperidol, pimozide, and aripiprazole D
• Fluphenazine, Risperidone
• May cause tardive dyskinesia D
• Tetrabenazine (“dopamine depletion”) D D
• Inhibits VMAT-2 (vesicular monoamine transporter type 2)
• Blocks uptake of dopamine synaptic vesicles (pre-synapse)
• Less dopamine storage/release D2
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
www.afratafreeh.com
• Angry, irritable child

• Argues with authority figures
• Defiant
• Vindictive toward parents/teachers
Gerry Thomasen/Flikr
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
www.afratafreeh.com
Diagnostic Criteria and Treatment
• Occurs with at least one individual who is not a sibling
• Causes problems at work, school or home
• Not caused by substance use, depression or bipolar
• Lasts at least six months
• Treatment: Cognitive behavioral therapy
• Resolves in most children
DMDD www.afratafreeh.com
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
• New disorder
• Added to DSM-V in 2013
• Controversial
• Some symptoms common (irritability)
• Similarities to ODD
• Few established treatments
• Childhood mood disorder
• Must occur before age 10
• Excessively irritable or angry behavior
• Frequent temper outbursts
• At least three times per week
• At least two settings (home, school, etc.)
• Behavior out of proportion to situation
• Cognitive behavioral therapy
• Anti-psychotics
• Anti-depressants
• Stimulants
Separation Anxiety Disorder
www.afratafreeh.com
• Childhood anxiety disorder

• Distress when separating home/parents
• Refusal to leave home
• Refusal to go to school
• Worry about losing major attachment figures
• Persistent reluctance/refusal to go out
Separation Anxiety Disorder
www.afratafreeh.com
• Nightmares about separation

• Repeated complaints of physical symptoms
• Headaches, upset stomach, nausea
• Occurs with separation or in anticipation
• Treatment: psychotherapy
• Goal: teach children coping skills
• Cognitive behavioral therapy
• Parent-child interaction therapy
D Sharon Pruitt/Wikipedia
Conduct Disorder
www.afratafreeh.com
• Childhood behavioral disorder

• Repeated pattern of violating rights of others
• Aggression to people/animals
• Destruction of property
• Lying or stealing
• Adult version: Antisocial personality disorder
aaron gilson/Flikr
www.afratafreeh.com
Bad Behavior
ADHD Conduct Disorder

Poor attention Property destruction
Hyperactivity Aggression to animals
ODD DMDD
Argues Temper tantrums
Defiant

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www.afratafreeh.

• Motor, language, and social skills for various ages

Time Milestone Piqsels

2 months Lift head

6 months Transfer objects

• Age 2: 50% understandable

• Global developmental delay

• Neurodevelopmental disorder of females

• Deceleration of head growth

Autism Selective Mutism Hearing Loss

Reflex Description Disappears by

• American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines

• AAP recommendations for screening based on age/condition

• Up to 9% toddlers have iron deficiency in US

• AAP guidelines: screening at ~1 year of age

• Use iron-fortified formula

• Screening at 18 and 24 months

Hearing Loss www.afratafreeh.com

• Can cause speech, language, and cognitive delays

• Screening begins ~ age 3

Public Domain Public Domain

• Annual screening starting at age 12

• Thelarche: development of breasts

• Occurs at early age, usually less than 8-9 years old

Wikipedia /Public Domain

• HEADSSS interview instrument

• Critical to providing care to adolescents

• Minor: usually defined as person under 18 years of age

• Minors can attain “legal adulthood” before 18

• Rules on parental notification vary by state

• Given by provider to parents

• Non-linear with spurts and slowing

• Most common causes of short stature after age two:

• Reflects growth of brain

• Mild to moderate dehydration: oral fluids

• First bowel movement usually within 36 hours of birth

• First week: # wet diapers = age in days

• Newborns sleep 3 to 4 hours at a time for about 18 to 20 hours/day

Car Seats www.afratafreeh.com

• Age < 2 years: rear-facing car seat in back

• Leading cause of death

Ear Infections and Fever

Image courtesy of Harshita Yadav

Michael Hawke MD/Wikipedia

• Bacterial infection of mastoid air cells

Otitis Media with Effusion

Image courtesy of Harshita Yadav

FWS in Infants www.afratafreeh.com

• Immunization before 6 weeks: weak response

• If mother is known HepB +

• Must wait until 12 months of age

• Self-limited hepatitis: symptoms resolve < 6 months

• Polio virus vaccine

• Most flu vaccines manufactured using eggs

Lee, Makin, Mtengezo, and Malata

• If start before 15 years

• Do not delay or dose adjust vaccinations

• Superficial bacterial skin infection

• Five days of high fever