D3.3 Homeostasis HL Notes

D3.
3 Homeostasis HL notes
Osmoregulation and Excretion
• Excretion is the process by which waste products from metabolic activities are moved
outside the body.
• For example, removal of urine by the kidneys, and removal of carbon dioxide from
the lungs during exhalation.
• Osmoregulation is the maintenance of a proper balance of water and dissolved
substances in organisms/ regulation of osmotic concentration
• For example, control of water balance in the blood by the kidney, and moving salts in
and out of cells to maintain their osmotic concentration.
• The concentration of solute particles per unit volume of a solution – osmotic
concentration – is usually expressed as osmoles per litre (osmol L−1)
The Kidneys
Kidneys are a pair of organs that are located on either side of the body cavity
The functions of the kidney include:
• regulation of water and ion balance (osmoregulation)
• removal of toxins and metabolic waste products (excretion)
Each kidney is made of 1.25 million filtering units called nephrons.
• Blood enters the kidney via the renal artery.
• Each artery forms smaller arterioles which connect to capillaries.
Structure of a nephron
Each nephron consists of:

• A capillary bed called glomerulus, that filters various substances from the blood.
• A capsule surrounding the glomerulus called the Bowman’s capsule
• A small tubule extending from the Bowman’s capsule consisting of the proximal
convoluted tubule, loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubule.
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• A second capillary bed called peritubular capillary that surrounds the three-part
tubule mentioned above.
• Collecting ducts which are shared by several nephrons.
Role of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule in excretion
• The first stage of urine formation is ultrafiltration – various substances are filtered
through the glomerulus (and its fenestrations) under blood pressure.
• The afferent arterioles carry the blood to each nephron. Each arteriole enters into
the Bowman’s capsule, forms the glomerulus and blood leaves via the efferent
arterioles.
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• The increase in blood pressure is caused by the efferent arteriole, which drains blood
from the glomerulus and has a smaller diameter than the afferent arteriole.
• The glomerulus is enveloped by podocytes which support the capillaries and regulate
the filtration process.
• They are the cells of the inner wall of the Bowman’s capsule.
• Podocytes have extensions which fold around the blood capillary forming a network
of filtration slits that hold back the blood cells during ultrafiltration together with the
glomerular basement membrane.
• The capillaries have small window-like openings called fenestrations.

• Capillaries are covered on the outside by a layer of extracellular material known as
the basement membrane.
• This is where ultrafiltration takes place; a process that is driven by the high pressure
in the capillaries.
• The fenestrations in the capillary wall allow blood to flow out, however, the
basement membrane acts like a sieve during the ultrafiltration process and stops the
blood cells and large proteins.
• Thus, white and red blood cells cannot pass through, but small proteins, salts and
nutrients can to form a liquid called glomerular filtrate.
Role of proximal convoluted tubule in excretion
The glomerular filtrate passes to the proximal convoluted tubule from the Bowman’s
capsule.
Walls of the PCT are one- cell thick.
These cells absorb back:
• all of the monomers such as glucose and amino acids
• most of the water and ions from the filtrate to the capillary network (peritubular
capillaries).
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• Cells are packed with mitochondria to aid in active transport which is a key
mechanism for reabsorption.
• Water enters the blood by osmosis.
• Urea enters the blood by diffusion
Proximal convoluted tubule and the reabsorption process
• Na+/K+ pumps use ATP for active transport to shuttle Na+ (out of the tubule) and
K+(into the tubule).
• The Cl- are attracted to the space outside the tubule because of the positively
charged Na+ .
• Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed along with Na+ from the filtrate by specific
carrier proteins (sodium-dependent co-transporters) down their concentration
gradient.
• The glucose and amino acid concentration within the proximal convoluted tubule
cells increases as they are absorbed from the filtrate.
• This concentration is higher than that of blood plasma,
• Thus both glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed into blood by facilitated diffusion.
• Microvilli in the apical part of cells of the tubule walls and invaginations in the
basolateral sides of the cells, greatly increase the surface area, for reabsorption by
facilitated diffusion, diffusion and active transport. (refer fig. D3.3.10 on page 773)
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Role of the loop of Henle
• The loop of Henle extends into the medulla from the cortex and has 2 limbs –
descending limb and ascending limb.
• Na+ and Cl- are actively transported out of the ascending limb which is impermeable
to water.
• High concentration of Na+ increases the salt concentration in the interstitial fluid
between the cells of the medulla.
• This draws water out from the descending limb (permeable to water) by osmosis.
• The vasa recta (parallel blood vessels around the loop of Henle) absorbs this water
back into the blood.
• As filtrate moves up the ascending limb less water is retained in the filtrate while Na+
and Cl- are pumped out.
• At each level in the loop the salt concentration in the descending limb is slightly
higher than in the ascending limb.
• This concentration effect is multiplied as the filtrate flows down the descending limb.
• The fluid in and around the hairpin bend of the loops of Henle is the saltiest.
• Na+ and Cl- leave the lower part of the ascending limb by diffusion as it is permeable
to ions.
Osmoregulation by water reabsorption in the collecting ducts
• The distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct are the final segments of the
nephron.
• The distal convoluted tubule connects the loop of Henle to the collecting duct.
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• The collecting duct is responsible for the osmoregulation.
• When the osmolarity of blood increases (indicating dehydration or high sodium
levels), osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are activated to stimulate the release of
the hormone antidiuretic hormone (ADH) into the blood stream from the pituitary
gland.
• The target cells of ADH are the cells in the wall of the collecting duct.
Effect of ADH on the permeability of walls of collecting duct
• ADH acts on collecting ducts to increase the number of aquaporins in the plasma
membranes which allows more water reabsorption from the filtrate.
• In the presence of ADH, aquaporins are mobilised from intracellular vesicles to the
cell plasma membranes and inserted there to allow for more water reabsorption.
• Water enters the medulla by osmosis from where it enters blood circulation in the
peritubular network.
• The action of liver continually removes and inactivates ADH.
• Hence only freshly released ADH can produce osmoregulatory effects.
• When the water content of blood is high (low osmolarity), little or no ADH is
secreted.
• When the rate of ADH production is decreased, the plasma membrane will invaginate
and store the aquaporins in intracellular vesicles again.
• Water remaining in the collecting duct will be removed in the urine.
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Changes in blood supply to organs in response to changes in activity
• Blood flow changes around the body, depending on levels of activity.

• Vasoconstriction and vasodilation of arterioles controls the rate of blood flow to
tissues.
During sleep or rest, since overall activity is reduced:
• The blood supply to major organs including skeletal muscles is relatively low
compared to the active state.
• Blood flow to the muscles is redirected to other essential functions, such as tissue
repair, growth and digestion.
• Blood flow to kidney is highest.
• Blood flow to the hypothalamus and brain stem is maximum during a stage of deep
sleep called REM (rapid eye movement)
During increased activity:
• The blood supply to major organs including lungs and skeletal muscles is relatively
high compared to the resting state.
• Blood flow to digestive organs is mainly redirected to skeletal muscles.
• After a heavy exercise, blood flow to the kidneys may increase to support
regeneration and regulate the blood values.
• Minimal changes occur to the blood flow to the brain.
Overall, blood flow to the kidney remain fairly constant to maintain osmoregulation and
excretion of waste.

D3.3 Homeostasis HL Notes

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D3.3 Homeostasis HL Notes

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D3.

Osmoregulation and Excretion

Each nephron consists of:

Role of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule in excretion

• The capillaries have small window-like openings called fenestrations.

Role of proximal convoluted tubule in excretion

Proximal convoluted tubule and the reabsorption process

Osmoregulation by water reabsorption in the collecting ducts

Effect of ADH on the permeability of walls of collecting duct

• Blood flow changes around the body, depending on levels of activity.

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