Towards meaningful

environmental learning
beyond the classroom
YVONNE NSUBUGA
6
Introduction
This chapter aims to introduce to the reader examples of teaching approaches,
methods, and .activities that are commonly used to mediate or help along
meaningfu l environme ntal learning outside the classroom context. We will
differentiate between the terms 'teaching approache s,' 'teaching methods,'
and 'teaching activities', as they are commonl y used in environm ental learning
contexts. Common examples of environm ental education teaching methods are
highlighte d and described and their main characteri stics as well as strengths and
limitations in supportin g meaningfu l outdoor environm ental learning will be
discussed. It is hoped that this will assist readers to identify, design and conduct
appropriat e learning activities to support meaningfu l environm ental learning
in different outdoor contexts. Furtherm ore, the intention is to assist teachers
tQ select and effectively implemen t appropria te teaching methods to support
identified environme ntal learning outcomes within the active learning or action
competen ce framework.

Meaningful environmental learning

There is growing interest worldwide in meaningfu l environm ental learning.
This is attributed to the general unhappine ss over the failure of most current
pedagogic al practices to address the root causes of the world's environmental
problems and the lack of opportuni ties for learners to engage in authentic
real-life, environme ntal problem-s olving. A call has been sounded for a more
practical, critical, democrati c and participat ory approach to environmental
learning, together with the growing influence of va.rious theories such as
constructi vism, cognition , social culturalism , and a communi ty of practice,
helping to understan d how learners learn and create meaning oftheir surroundings
( Mogensen & Schnack, 2010).
However, literature shows that in many schools across the globe, including
in South Africa, meaningfu l environme ntal learning is not a central feature of
environm ental education processes; teachers and learners are mostly concerned
with the acquisitio n of easily examinable factual knowledg e, partially because
of the knowledg e-based curriculum structures in vogue across the globe
(Reddy, 2018). This has contribute d to what is commonly referred to as the
'cognitive gap', whereby learners have high levels of theoretica l knowledge
about environm ental problems, but lack the prerequisi te skills or attitude to
 classroom
Cha pter 6: Env iron men tal learn ing beyond the

their local cont exts or implement

effec tivel y inve stig ate envi ronm enta l issue s in
the requ fred solu tion s (Joh nsto n, 200 9).
learn ing' can be interpreted
The con cep t of 'mea ning ful envi ronm enta l
to defin ing this term is throu gh
in num erou s diff eren t way s. One appr oach
enta l learn ing, which according
unpa ckin g the edu cati ona l outc ome s of envi ronm
ent of:
to Ros enbe rg (20 09:6 ) in dud e the deve lopm
• Valu es Jikc acti ve and resp onsi ble dtize nshi p.
• An ethi c of resp onsi bHi ty and com mitm ent.
ibilit ies.
• A sens e of hop e and abil ity to imag ine new poss
• Act ion com pete nce .
rstan ding .
• Tec hnic al kno wle dge as wcJJ as insig ht and unde
reaso ning , and drawing
• Prac tica l and conc cpcu al skill s like enqu iry,
con clus ions .
• Hea lthy scho ol envi ronm ents .
impl eme nt learn ing programmes
How to dev elop , stru ctur e, and effe ctive ly
abov e learn ing outc ome s is key
or lesso ns that sup por t the real isati on of the
appr oach es to envir onm ental
to mea ning ful env iron men tal lear ning . Two
etenc e are widely recognised as
educ ation , nam ely acti ve /ear ning and actio n comp
outc ome s, and thus cont ribut ing
facil itatin g the real isati on of the abov e lear ning
to mea ning ful env iron men tal lear ning .

Active lear ning in env iron men tal education

ning (Rep ublic ofSout h Afiica,
Sout h Afri ca's Wh ite Pap er on Edu cati on and Trai
1995) supp orts an activ e app roac h to envi ronm enta l educ ation , in whic h learners
ing activ e learn ing learners arc
~re enga ged in n1ea ning ful lear ning activ ities . Dur
abou t the thing s they are doin g,
involved in doin g thin gs and criti cally trun king
ted know ledg e. How ever , there
~sop pose d to bein g pass ive reci pien ts of tran smit
Afri ca crea ting cohe rent active
15 st
_rong evid ence that for man y teac hers in Sou th
r chal leng e. One tool that has
enVJ ronm ental lear ning expe rien ces rem ains a majo
activ e learn ing framework
r:?ved very usef ul in add ress ing this chal leng e is the
a spec ific envi ronm enta l issue is
'd •gure 6.1 ). Acc ordi ng to this fram ewo rk,
I e •fi n or learn ing prog ramm e.
A nti e~ and mad e the cent ral focu s of the lesso
and impl emen ted arou nd the
P~ro pnat e lear ning activ ities are then desi gned
ronm enta l learn ing expe rienc e
;nvi ronm enta l issu e, resu lting in a mea ning ful envi
ns for linki ng teach ing about,
_or learn ers. This fram ewo rk prov ides a usef ul mea
rated learn ing experiences
for the env iron men t, and thus prov idin g integ
11 nd
~~
w ich are both teac her- guid ed and learn er-c entr ed.

105
 Environmental education: Principles and guidelines for teachers

Mobilise prior knowledge and experience

t1lirillirlil1
~

Issue
~;,o
0

• R ~-
:::,
0'Q

~-
c.,<I,

l ~:: I 4ction tai,~'l>

9: :::i
Developing insights and competence for
making better environmental management
and lifestyle choices

Figure 6.1 A framework for active learning (O'Donoghue, 2001).

Overall, the four overarching steps that are depicted in this framework contribute
to meaningful environmental learning by engaging learners in:
• Seeking and sharing information ab:out a specific environmental issue.
• Conducting practical investigation in the local environment.
• Taking action towards environmental sustainability.
• Reporting and reflecting on actions taken.

By placing learners in their local contexts, and involving them in activities that
are important to them and their communities, the active learning framework
further ensures that the environmental learning taking place is collaborative,
authentic and situated, as opposed to being solely driven by the acquisition of
abstract knowledge concerns. Learning activities are set up and guided by teachers
initially but the emphasis is on active co-learning and knowledge development
by teachers and learners in a local context (see examples discussed below).

106
 Chapter 6: Envir onme ntal learning beyond the classroom

Action competence in environmental education

(Jense n &Sch nack,
In the actio n comp etenc e mode l to envir onme ntal educa tion
cmiro nmco t than in
2006 ), more emph asis is place d on takin g actfo n for the
: can be seen as
the active learn ing fram e discu ssed above . Actio n competence
cm·iro nmen t. Action
the :tbilit y and comm itme nt to act with refere nce to the
fy environmental
comp etenc e is descr ibed a.s a proce ss in wh.ich learne rs identi
that devel op their
issues, deter mine solut ions, and take action s in ways
probl ems (Jensen
comp etenc e for futur e actio n to solve or avoid envir onme ntal
& Schn ack, 1997 ; Jense n & Schn ack, 2006 ).
rts democratic,
Simil ar to activ e learn ing, actio n comp etenc e suppo
processes. However,
collab orativ e and parti cipat ory, envir onme ntal learn ing
devel oping learners'
in the actio n comp etenc e mode l, there is more focus on
g and imple menti ng
ability, motiv ation and desir e to actin :ly partk ipatc: in findin
tance and interest.
soluti ons to envir onme ntal probl ems that arc of locaJ impor
ies for learners to
The actio n comp etenc e appro ach seeks to provi de oppor tun.it
s social skills, and
exercise agen cy to take envir onme ntal actio n, devel op variou
strategics to apply to
evaluate and re.fJe ct on their en-\-isaged ne,v \'isioa s, and the
).
get to them (Jens en & Schn ack, 2006 ; Silo & Mswc la, 2016
tal educa tion
More recen tly, the actio n comp etenc e appro ach to emiro nmca
(Sterling, 2011;
is increa singly being infor med by tram farm ntive learn ing theory
onnatiYc learning
Johns ton, 2009 ). Prop onen ts of this theor y believ e that transf
views and their
contr ibutes to a long -term , deep struc turaJ shift in learne rs' world
ction, plann ing and
place in the world as a resul t of critic al reflec tion, social intera
tion is regarded
taking actio n. In this way, trans form ative envir onme ntal educa
views and ways of
as foster ing radic al chan ge in learn ers' and socie ty's world
practices (Blake,
being towa rds more infor med lifest yle choic es and sustai nable
, 2008) .
Sterling & Good son, 20 I 3; Rose nberg , O'Do nogh uc & Ohitt
ction between
The actio n-com peten ce mode l make s a carefu l distin
comp ost making,
envir onme ntal actio ns and activ ities such as pape r recyc ling,
that are a comm on
tree plant ing, and cond uctin g local surve ys and interv iews
ls in South Africa.
feature of envir onme ntal educ ation proce sses at many schoo
ding them with
While these exam ples are usefu l in motiv ating learne rs and prO\i
im·estig;iting, they
more insig ht into tJ1e speci fic envir onme ntal probl em they are
tal probk ms
fall short when it come s to addre ssing root cause s of enviro nmen
are characterised b)'
and imple ment ing real-l ife solut ions. Em·ir onme ntal action s
, and implemented
being inten tiona l, drive n by consc ious and purpo seful effort
comp etence modd
by indivi dual learn ers or grou ps of learn ers. The action
actions. Direct
differ entiat es betw een direc t and indir ect envir onme ntal
the en\'ironmcnt.tl
enviro nmen tal actio ns contr ibute direc tly to solvin g
menti ng papcr-
problem that is being inves tigate d, for exam ple, learne rs imple
projec ts. Indirect
recycling, worm -farm ing, schoo l-gar denin g, and comp osting
a contri bution or
enviro nmen tal actio ns enab le or influe nce other s to make
includ e writing
work towar ds solvi ng the envir onme ntal probl em at hand, and
107
 Environmental education: Principles and guidelines for teachers

letters to local officials, setting up biogs in social media or organising public

debates regarding the environmental problem in question. It is important that
the environmental actions undertaken by learners arc both manageable and
achievable and are scaffolded (supported along the way) by teachers.
Literature contains various models of the action-competence learning
process, one of which is illustrated in Table 6.1 below. Although this model takes
on a linear form, its designers point out that the various steps interconnect and
overlap, and the whole learning process can start anywhere in the framework.

Table 6.1: The Action Competence Development Cycle (Silo & Mswela, 2016:50)

Components of the action Area of focus

competence cycle

k Selection of environmental (issues, • What are our issues of concern/problems?

problems and concerns) • What are the causes of the problem?
• What influences are we exposed to and why?
• Why is this important to us?
• What is its significance to us/others? - now I in the future?
• What influence does our lifestyle and living conditions have
on the environmental health problems?
• How were things before and why have they changed?
B. Vision building • What alternatives and solutions are imaginable?
• What alternatives do we prefer and why?

C. Activities (Action and change) • What changes will bring us closer to the visions?
• Changes within ourselves? In the classroom/ school? In the
community?
• What action possibilities exist for realising these changes?
• What barriers might prevent the undertaking of these actions?
• What barriers might prevent actions from resulting in
change?
• What actions will we initiate?

D. Evaluation • How will we evaluate those actions?

• What comes out of this evaluation?

Both the active learning and action competence frameworks can help teachers not
only in designing and structuring meaningful environmental learning activities
but also in the selection of appropriate teaching approaches and methods
that support meaningful environmental learning inside as well as outside the
classroom.

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 Chap ter 6: Envir onme ntal learni ng beyond the classroom

Teaching approache.s, methods and activities

comm only used in
The terms teach ing appr oach es, meth ods and activi ties arc
ding to the author
educa tion litera ture, yet their exact mean ings may vary accor
stand ing, it is useful
and the conte xt. To avoid confu sion and mix-u ps in under
er.
first to clar.ify the mean ings of these terms as used in this chapt

Teaching approach/ methodology

y represents the
Of the three term s, teach ing appro ach or teach ing metho dolog
activities may be
larger categ ory unde r whic h teach ing meth ods and teach ing
ing metho dolog y is
placed. In this chap ter, the term teach ing appro ach or teach
ing (Rosenberg,
used to refer to the philo soph ical assum ption s that inform teach
to for example how
0'Do nogh ue & OJvi tt, 2008 ). Thes e assum ption s relate
of educa tion, how
individual teach ers view the natur e of know ledge , purpo se
er and learners
learni ng takes place , as well as the expec ted roles of the teach
ent ,iewp oints on
in educa tion. Diffe rent teach ing appro aches reflec t differ
differ ent teaching
these key aspec ts and it is these differ ences which distin guish
nogh ue and Olvitt
appro aches from each other . Acco rding to Rosen berg, O'Do
, approach and
(2008 ), teach ing appro ache s influe nce how teach ers under stand
ng emiro nmcn tal
rnake use of the vario us teach ing meth ods when imple menti
educa tion prog ramm es.

Teaching method
specific educational
Often teach ers cond uct envir onme nt educa tion lesson s \\ith
l purpo ses are linked
purposes or outco mes in mind . Broa dly these educa tiona
examp le of this is
to the three name d teach ing appro aches ident ified above . An
types of plants and
When a teach er cond ucts a lesso n on ident ifying the differ ent
may use ditlcrent
animal life in the scho ol yard. Duri ng this lesso n the reach er
desire d educational
teaching activ ities that will lead to the achie veme nt of the
g the lesson in
purpose. The grou p of teach ing activi ties that take place durin
teach er's teaching
order for the educ ation outco me to be realis ed const itute the
e in this chapter, a
metho d (Ros enbe rg, O'Do nogh ue & Olvit t, 2008 ). Henc
g the teaching
teaching meth od or teach ing strate gy is regar ded as const itutin
tional outco me.
activities that are colle ctive ly used to achie ve a specif ied educa
to illustrate the
Rose nberg , O'Do nogh ue and Olvit t (200 8) use Figur e 6.2
ics.
relationship betw een teach ing meth odolo gy, meth ods and acti\it

109
 Environmental education: Principles and guidelines for teachers

• Methodology/ approach (eg investigative methodology)

•
i
Method (eg fieldwork method)

•
i
Activities and tools (eg water quality tests)

Figure 6.2 The relationship between teaching methodology, methods and

activities (Rosenberg, O'Donoghue & Olvitt, 2008:2)

Categorising teaching methods

There is a wide variety of teaching methods that teachers can make use of to
support environmental learning in their lessons. Rosenberg (2009) notes that
teachers need to be careful in their selection of teaching methods to ensure not
only that learners arc taught well but also that the intended learning outcomes
are achieved. Rosenberg (2009:59) suggests that teachers use the key questions
below as a guide when selecting teaching methods for their environmental
education programmes or lessons:

• What needs to be learned?

• Does this teaching method provide the best way for learners to learn this?
• Does this teaching method give learners access to new knowledge and/or relevant skills?
• How does this the teaching method connect with what has been done before?
• Does the teaching method prepare learners for what will be done neKl?
• What should be done afterwards, to check and consolidate learning?
• How long will it take to use this teaching method well?

Based on the intended educational purpose of the environmental learning

programme or lesson, teaching methods may be categorised into four broad
groups, namely:
• Information transfer methods .
• Experiential learning methods .
• Investigative methods .
• Action-taking methods .

It is useful to keep in mind that the groups of teaching methods above represent
just one among the numerous typologies of environmental education teaching
methods that exist in literature. In addition, some teaching methods may belong
to more than one category, while others are difficult to place in any of these

110
 Chapte r 6: Enviro nment al learnin g beyond the classro om

ries
catego ries (Rose nberg , 0' Dono ghue & Olvitt, 2008 ). Hence the catego
a
of teachi ng metho ds identi fied here should not be seen as represe nting
s.
rigid comp: irtmcn talisat ion of enviro nment al educat ion teachin g method
unities
Furthe rmore , which ever teachi ng metho d is used, there should be opport
make
for learne rs to delibe rate and reflect on the activiti es involv ed in order to
meanin g of their learni ng (Rose nberg , O'Don oghuc & Olvitt, 2008).

Information trans fer metho ds

utory
Lick ofrele v:int inform ation or knowl edge is often cited as one of the contrib
l
factors to unsus tainab le huma n practic es that contrib ute to enviro nmenta
es and
degrad ation. Hence teachi ng metho ds that convey inform ation or messag
oural outcom es
help raise aware ness and foster critica l skills to enable better beha"i
l
for the enviro nmen t and enviro nment al conce rns arc import ant in enviro nmenta
ns
educat ion. Know ledge transf er metho ds such as lecture s, teache r demon stratio
throug h
and expert presen tation s focus on learne rs' cognit ive develo pment
ess.
enviro nment al know ledge acquis ition and impro ved enviro nmenta l awaren
is -also
They under pin the educa tion about the enviro nment approa ch, which
referre d to as the 'head appro ach'.
for
Teach ers' relian ce on knowl edge transfe r teachi ng metho ds as the basis
numer ous
enviro nment al educa tion practi ce has come under severe criticis m from
n
~uthor s. First of all, the premi se that there is a linear relatio nship betwee
mental
improv ement in enviro nmen tal knowl edge and a,varen ess, and en,;ron
teache r
action and chang e in behav iour has been sho\\n to be false. Being
for
or expert -drive n, these teachi ng metho ds provid e limited opport unities
l issues
learner s' practic al parric ipatio n and engag ement ,vith the enviro nmenta
s of
at hand. They tend to restric t enviro nment al learnin g to within the confine
as a
a classro om, library or hall, and fail to make use of learne rs' surrou ndings
transfe r
teachin g and learni ng resour ce. Their applic ation focuse s mainly on the
tely
of scienti fic and techni cal factua l knowl edge to learne rs, and do not adequa
and the
address the interp lay betwe en the socio- econo mic and politic al contex ts
blamed
enviro nment al crisis. Trans fer of knowl edge metho ds have also been
, critical
fo~ failing to develo p learne rs' high (?rdcr skills such as proble m solving
that teache rs who rely
thtnkin g, creativ ity and reflec tion. It has been argued
science
mostly on this group of teachi ng metho ds are teachi ng em;ron menta l
do not
or enviro nment al studie s rather than enviro nment al educat ion, and
nmenta l
adequa tely addres s the action and partic ipator y impera tives of enviro
educat ion.

111
 Environmental education: Principles and guidelines for teachers

...._ -
Case
,_ Study 1: Getting the right information across
During a lesson on water conservation, learners watch a short film on water pollution
in South Africa. They are also provided with reading materials on various water
issues. A farmer may also be invited to talk about measures taken to address water
shortages on farms during drought. The video can serve to provide information in
a particular context and would thus be a useful resource visually. The notes and
other materials can serve to reinforce understandings developed by way of the
video presentation. Similarly to the video, the farmer can provide a useful real-
life presentation on an issue further reinforcing understanding of the issue. The
problem here is that the learners are passive all the way and that there are no
real opportunities for engagement with the issue by way of encounter and also no
opportunity for follow-up discussions.

Meaningful outdoor cnvironmen_tal !_earning _is cl<_>scly ~sso~iated with teaching

methods that fall under the expcric11ttnl learn mg, mvcst1gatwe and action-taking
groups of teaching methods. In the sections that follow, examples of different
teaching methods under each of these three categories are described, focusing
on their key distinguishing features, on the assumptions upon which their use in
meaningful environmental education arc based, and on suggestions to improve
their effective use in outdoor contexts. Examples of case studies to illustrate how
the teaching methods can be implemented are also provided. Overall, the aim of
the following sections is to serve as an introductory text to some of the teaching
methods that support meaningful environmental learning in outdoor contexts.

Experiential learning methods

Experiential methods have a long tradition of association with environment
education, and the increased interest in constructivist learning theories has further
strengthened the use of these methods not only in environment education, but
in other subjects as well. Historically, there is a very close association between
experiential learning methods and all forms of outdoor education. This group
of teaching methods aims to 'develop the heart' by focusing on learners' values,
morals and ethics with regard to their world views and their place in the world.
They underpin what is called the education in the environment approach to
environmental education.
Experiential learning may be defined as a process that provides learners with
opportunities to construct knowledge, acquire skills, and examine value systems
from direct experiences with or in their environment (Rosenberg, O'Donoghuc
& Olvitt, 2008 ). The main goal of these methods is to enable learners to
experience their environment first hand, and to reflect on their experience, beliefs
and values as a means of re-examining their relationship with their environment.
This group of methods is based on the assumption that sensory experience such

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 Chapter 6: Enviro nmenta l learning beyond the classroom

as sight, emotio n, audio and touchin g provide: enrichi ng emotional or spiritual

experiences that may help learner s to develop new ways of thinking, skills and
attitudes regard ing the enviro nment. In experiential learning, learning takes
pldcc on a person al basis and inform s future: learnin g and experience including
en\'iron mcntal behavi our.
Experi ential teachin g metho ds that are commo nly used in outdoo r
en\'iron mentJI educat ion includ e:

• Field trips and excursions

Field trips :tnd excurs ions arc tours or visits to places of interest that arc
conduc ted with the aim of achievi ng certain learnin g outcomes that arc best
address ed out!.id e the classro om environ ment. They provide a rich learning
experie nce by which learner s observ e and interact first-hand ,,ith the world
around them. The site of the visit or tour ma)' be natural, for example the
coast, botani cal garden s or a natural forest, or human-made, for example a
museum , a paper- recycli ng plant, or a rubbish dump or any other located
topic or issue. In addjtio n to helping to enhanc e what is taught in class,
field trips and excurs ions must interes t and motiva te learners, and they must
provide opport unities for more social interac tion between learners, teachers
and commu nity memb ers. Howe\ 'er, field trips and excursions need careful
plannin g and organi sation in terms of logistics such as transport, legal
require ments, learne r safety, learnin g activities to be carried out before and
after the excurs ion, and suppor ting educati onal materials. It is important
that learner s arc adequa tely prepare d for the visits and have the conceptual
tools and knowl edge to be able to carry out any of the activities associated
with the field trip.

Case study 22 How well do you know your surr~~n~ings!.J

Learners may conduc t a guided tour of the community surrounding their
school. The learner s are divided into smaller groups of 4 to 5 learners. Each
group is allocat ed a specific environmental or sustainability issue on which
to make observa tions during the trip, for example, environmental challenges
faced by the commu nity, econom ic activities taking place, plants and animals,
types of land uses, etc. Groups record their observations on worksheets
provided to them. After the tour, the groups make oral or written presentations
of their observa tions to the whole class. Such an activity provides learners
with first-hand experie nce and requires them to engage with the environment
by way of observa tions and other guided learning activities. Particular skills
can be develop ed, includi ng data collection, presentation, collaboration and
factual learning.

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 Environmental education: Principles and guidelines for teachers

• Interpretive trails I Guided environmental interpretation

This method invoh·es learners taking .1 guided walk through an area in
order to learn about it from what they sec, hear, read, smell, feel and 50
forth. The walk may be through a natural area such as a game reserve
a natural forest, or along a river (nature trails), but can also be throughor
built area, such as a city market or a busy street or residential area (urba~
trail). Information about the area may be provided along the trail from
trained trail guide, from signs or posters that arc placed along the route 0 :
from pamphlets, maps, and booklets that participants may take with them
on the trail. Interpretive trails can be made more enriching by incorporatin,
add!~onal environm~ntal education activities into them, such as biouivcrsit~
audmng, water quality assessment and land use mapping.
To be effective, interpretative information needs to be tailored to meet the
particular needs and interests of the participants on the interpretive trail. This
calls for a flexible approach as to the types and sources of the interpretation
during an interpretive trail. Secondly, it is important that interpretation docs
not get in the way of participants' interaction \\ith the environment. Hence
carefol thought needs to be paid to the types of sources of information
provided along or during the trail.

• Solitaire
Solitaire is described as a 'time out and alone' experience in the environment.
This teaching method often comes after a trail walk or guided tour.has taken
place. It means that participants are provided with individual space and the time
to think back on what they have experienced on the tour, as means of clarifying
their values and shaping foture environmental behaviour. During solitaire,
participants are encouraged to write down their reflections in a journal, or they
may express them in art form such as poem, dance, song or play.
Although solitaire bas a strong association with environmental education,
it has been critiqued for wrongly assuming that positive feelings towa rds
the environment always result in positive behavioural change towards :c
environment. 1n addition, supplementary support may be needed before :
1
positive feelings developed during solitaire can be put to practic~l ~tTc_c\hc
has also been pointed out that it is misleading to assume that solitaire is
only means by which we can relate with nature.

Case study 3: Making friends with nature

• - - - ...... __. atural forest,
Learners enjoy a walk along the beach or a river or through a n t' ns and
. al observa ,o
etc. They are given some time to reflect on t he1r person essed in
experiences. The reflections may be jotted down in a notebook or expr
the form of a poem, song or dance, etc.

114

.,
 Chapter 6: Environm ental learning beyond the classroom

• Recording and interpretation of visual images

Visual images such as photogra phs and video clips can be used as a teaching
method through which to record, tell and interpret cmironm ental stories.
These stories may be about ~pccilic environmental issues, environm enul
inrcstiga tions or environm ental experiences. For example, learners can u.sc
this method to report on environm ental issues in their communities, or to
record how they experien ce the environm ent in their communities. Specialist
equipme nt is needed for this method, such as cameras or ,·ideo recorders.
However , the introduc tion of affordabl e ccfl phones "ith cameras has made
this method more acces\ibl c to most people. The photographs or ,ideo
clips that arc recorded can be used to inhiate a discussion on environmental
issues in the commun ity.
One limitatio n of tJ1is method is the specialist equipmen t, such as cameras
and video recorder s, that need to be purchase d and maintained in working
condition . Hence expertise in working \\ith such equipment is necessary.
In addition , while risual images arc useful in context where literacy levels
arc low, they may require special training in dTectivc interpretation skills.
Currently, smart cellular telephon es can o,·crcome the specialist equipment
problem or limitatio n as many learners hare access to such de,ices; this
allows for easy capturin g of images, ,idcos and sound or voice.

Investigative teaching methods

ln\'cstigative methods arc associate d \\iLil the educatio n for the environment, or
~ands-on approach . This group of methods aims to contribut e to em·ironmental
1111 pro,,emcnt b}' develop ing learners' sense of responsibility and active:
Participation, as well as the developm ent of scientific research skills and other
higher-order skills such as critical thinking reflection , and problem sohing.

• Inquiry teaching
Inquiry teaching methods arc character ised by learning cm·ironments that
enable learners to experien ce and investiga te the world around them while
they arc at the same time acquirin g scientific investigation and other essential
skills. During inquiry- based teaching , learners ta.kc on the roles of researchers
or scientists by becomin g actively invoh·ed in the im·cstigation process.
This involves making careful observat ions of their surroundings, posing
ques~ons, formula ting hypotlies es, data collection and interpretation,
as well as drawing conclusi ons and commun icating them. In inquiry
teaching it is learners ' question s that drive the curriculum as learners take
responsibility for their learning to pursue their own lines of inquiry leading
to new question s, discover ies and understa ndings.

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Environmental education: Principles and guidelines for teachers

When properly planned and implemented, inquiry-based methods have

been shown to have numerous benefits. Learners learn best when they can
take an active role and practise what they have learned. Inquiry-teaching
methods can thus enhance l~arning and improve learner achievement. They
contribute to making learmng more relevant to learners' daily lives while
enhancing the dcv~lopme_n~ of a _ran_gc of skills among learners including
creativity, rescarclung, cnt1cal thmking, problem solving, teamwork and
communication.
1
Case
, .
study
•
4: Racing against litter
- I

During this activity learners investigate waste management at their schooi or

in their communities. Learners are divided into teams and each team collects
as much litter as possible over a given period of time. The litter is sorted
into different types, and weighed or counted. Results can be presented to the
whole school during school assembly. Teams that collect the most litter ma
be rewarded. Reasons for the litter accumulation and ways in which this ca~
be prevented can be discussed and presented as inferences resulting from the
investigation.

• Fieldwork
Fieldwork may be described as investigations or learning activities that
take place outside structured school environments such as classrooms and
laboratories. Fieldwork sites include areas where outdoor classroom acti\~tics
arc possible, such as a. schoolyard ?r ga_rden, shopping centre, natural forest,
park, polluted river, beach, dumpmg site, and so on. The practical activities
carried out during fieldwork involve observing and collecting data on the
natural and the built environment, as well as society.
Fieldwork provides learners with opportunities to experience the environment
and fosters greater awareness and meaningful change in learners' insight
and attitudes towards the environment. The practical activities carried out
during fieldwork help to enhance learners' conceptual understanding of
theoretical work as well as to develop their research skills. To be effective
fieldwork must be carefully planned, especially in terms of location, tasb
to be carried out, time needed, resources available, and teacher guidance
and support. During fieldwork, learners may carry out activities such as
experiments, surveys or environmental audits.

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 Chapter 6: Environm ental learning beyond the classroom

Case study 5: Making sure every drop c~un_ts ~

Learners conduct a water audit at their school to identify areas where water is
being used and to determine the amount of water that is used and that is lost
due to leaks or wastage over a given period of time. They first walk around the
school and draw up a map showing the sites where water is being used (toilets,
kitchen, outside taps, school garden, etc). At each site, an activity sheet is
completed which involves measuring the amount of water used, and wasted.
Back in class, learners present their findings, and the teacher facilitates a
general discussio n on an action plan to reduce water use. Learners write up a
report, or make a presentat ion to the whole school. This form of investigation
and excursion s in general provide good opportunities for transdisciplinary
or cross-cur ricular work. Different subject teachers can focus on particular
sections of the investigat ion. Mathematics teachers can assist with calculating
water loss and help learners develop graphs to represent water use. language
teachers can help with report writing and presentation and £MS teachers can
assist with costing and wastage presentations. In this way, content areas of
different subjects can be taught using the environmental issue as a learning
context.

Action-taking teaching I issue-based methods

• Problem-solving method
This method uses problem sohing as a technique to help learners 10 learn.
It has been described as a learner-c entred teaching method that uses real-life
problems to motivate and guide learning. Learning is drfren by sohing the
problems, rather than the memorisa tion of environm emal facts or practical
procedure s. Contrary to other teaching methods in which learners use the
knowledg e acquired elsewhere IO soh·e problems , in this teaching method
learners use the problems to acquire new knowledg e, and skills, and deepen
understan ding of the world around them.
Learners start the problcm· sohing cycle "ith the identification and
descriptio n of the problem, which helps them to knO\\' more about their
environm ent. In the next step, learners engage in self-directed srudy during
which they work together and use different sources of inform;ition to
deepen their understa nding of the selected problem, and possible solutions.
After developin g an action plan, learners choose a suitable solution to
the problem and they impleme nt it. The last step in this method is when
learners reflect and evaluate the decisions and actions during the whole
learning cycle.

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Environmental education: Principles and guidelines for teachers

Examples of environmental issues th:it can be invesrig:itcd by learners include

pollution in a local stream or river, littering in the school or community
and water or energy conservation. This teaching method provides learner~
with opportunities to apply acquired knowledge in improving local
environmental problems that they themselves have identified and recognised
to be important. Learners also develop various skills that arc necessary
for environmental problem-solving, such as critical thinking, rcsearcl
collaboration, and designing, implementing and evaluating environment 'j
solutions. However, successful implementation of this method relics a
careful selection of tl,e environmental problem to be investigated. Learn on
need access to a w1'd e vanety
• o f resources and time
• under the guidance of tiers
teachers. This provides opportunities for co-learning by tc:1chcrs and learn ic
and the devclo~n_1cnt of 'new' knowledge in the particular environmen~:~
context. In add1t1on, teachers need to carefully consider which aspects f
the problem-~olving cycle will be assessed and they need to develop cffccti~e
rubrics for this purpose.

• Project learning or project-based learning

In this teaching method, learning is organised around the implementation of
emironmental projects. Project learning may take two forms. In the first form
learners are first taught the necessary concepts and skills as part of their normai
lessons inside the classroom. They then make use of the acquired competences
to implement an environmental project. In the second form of project-based
learning, selection of the environmental project precedes all ot1lc:r steps, and
the necessary skills and knowledge skills arc integrated into the implementation
processes. A distinguishing feature of this method is the focus on the final
outcome, which may be a product, model, report or presentation. Examples
of environmental projects in which learners may engage include establishing a
school garden, tree planting, and paper or plastic recycling.

Project-based learning provides learners with real-life learning experiences

while empowering them to become responsible citizens of their
communities. In addition to benefiting from enhanced research and social
skills, learners develop more in-depth kno_wledgc of the environmental issue
under investigation than they would under the more conventional teaching
methods. Because environmental projects are rooted in the real world,
they improve curriculum relevance which enhances learners' interest and
motivation in school work as well as their sense of civic responsibility.

The project method has major limitations, many of which arc characteristic
of disadvantaged schools in South Africa. For example, learners' access to a
variety of high-quality educational resources is essential, and teachers need
to be well trained, knowledgeable and motivated to provide the necessary
support to learners. 1n addition, this teaching method requires more

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 Chapter 6: Environ mental learning beyond the classroom

time than most others in terms of planning and practic.al implcmcntation.

Howev er, this metho d provide s opportu nities to stimulate learning in ways
that encour age learner s to become involved in their own learning and to
work toward s solving local environmental problems or issues.

Case study 6: Don't refuse to re-use f

• - A

As part of their lesson on waste management, learners bring to school

discarded objects from their homes, such as old newspapers, plastic carrier
bags and bottles, old tyres, etc. They establish the effect of these items on the
environ ment if discard ed as Jitter, and how they can be recycled. The items are
recycled into useful items by the learners. For example, old newspapers can be
shredded and added to the compost heap to be used later as organic fertiliser
for the school garden, plastic bottles redesigned as flower pots, and old tyres
as garden chairs, etc.

conclusion
Em~ronmental educat ion is known for its wide array of innovative tcaching
methods, many of which have been adopted in other subjects such as Scicnce
and Mathem atics. Learnin g theorie s such as constructivism, situated karning,
communities of practic e and trarufor mation theory have impro,•cd our
understanding of the learnin g process and have been instrumental in the
dc,•elopmcnt of many of these innovati\'e teaching methods. Various tools
notably the actin learning and action competmtt frameworks ha\'e been
dcrclopcd to hc:lp teacher s not onJy design relevant learning acthitics, but
also select approp riate teachin g method s to support meaningful cmironmcntal
learning in dfffcrc nt context s.
One typolog y of cmiron mentaJ educati on teaching methods differentiates
between knowle dge tr.111sfer, experiential, investigative and learning-by-doing
groups of teachin g method s. There is strong evidence that in many schools in
South Africa and elsewh ere across the globe, many teachers arc biased towards
knowledge transfe r teachin g method s. Confini ng emironmental lc.uning to this
type of teachin g method has the negative impact of restricting emironmcntal
education to the classro om, and denying learners opportunities to dC\·clop
and exercise the knowle dge, values and skills that arc prerequisite to dTcctire
learning, environ mental improv ement and progress towards sustainability.
Studies have shown that compet encies such as curiosity, autonomy, self.
reflection, commu nicatio n, civic responsibility, critical analysis, problem sohing,
research, and action taking and many others can be devdopcd through the use of
experiential, investig ative and action-t aking teaching methods. While not claiming
to be exhaust ive, this chapter introdu ced the reader to a selection of teaching
methods that can be used to suppor t the development of these competencies.

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