Mechanics of Machines (2)

DPE 222

Second Year
Mechanical Department
THEORY OF MACHINES AND MECHANISMS

Chapter 1
Kinematics of Plane Mechanisms

1. Definitions
1.1 Theory of Machines
Theory of machines may be defined as that branch of engineering science, which
deals with the study of relative motion between the various parts of machine, and
forces which act on them. The knowledge of this subject is very essential for an
engineer in designing the various parts of a machine.

1.2 Sub- divisions of theory of Machines

The Theory of Machines (M/C) may be sub-divided into the following four
branches:

1. Kinematics: is that branch of theory of machines which is responsible to

study the motion of bodies without reference to the forces which are cause
this motion, i.e., it relate the motion variables (displacement, velocity,
acceleration) with the time.
2. Kinetics: is that branch of theory of machines which is responsible to relate
the action of forces on bodies to their resulting motion.

3. Dynamics: is that branch of theory of machines which deals with the forces
and their effects, while acting upon the machine parts in motion.

4. Statics: is that branch of theory of machines which deals with the forces and
their effects, while the machine parts are rest.
5. mechanisms of automobiles....... etc. The analysis of mechanisms is a part of
machine design which is concerned with the kinematics and kinetics of
mechanisms (or the dynamics of mechanisms).

1.3 Machine
A machine is a mechanism or collection of mechanisms, which transmit force
from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. Though all machines
are mechanisms, all mechanisms are not machines. Many instruments are
mechanisms but are not machines, because they do no useful work nor do they
transform energy, e.g., Mechanical clock, drafter.

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1.4 Mechanism
is a combination of rigid bodies which are formed and connected together by
some means, so that they are moved to perform some functions, such as the
crank-connecting rod mechanism of the I.C. engines, steering mechanisms of
automobiles....... etc. The analysis of mechanisms is a part of machine design
which is concerned with the kinematics and kinetics of mechanisms (or the
dynamics of mechanisms).

1.5 Structure
An assembly of resistant bodies, known as members having no relative motion
between them and meant for carrying loads is called structure.

Machine Structure
1. The different parts of a machine have 1. There is no relative motion between the
relative motion. members.
2. It transforms energy into useful work. 2. It does not convert the energy into work.
3. Links are used to transmit motion. 3. Members are used for carrying loads.
Example: Shaping m/c Example: bridges, roof trusses m/c frames.

1.6 Link
It is the name given to anybody which has motion relative to another. All
materials have some elasticity. A rigid link is one, whose deformations are so
small that they can be neglected in determining the motion parameters of the link.

Binary link: Link which is connected to other links at two points.

Ternary link: Link which is connected to other links at three points.
Quaternary link: Link which is connected to other links at four points.

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1.7 Kinematic pair:

When two elements belonging to two links, are connected to give relative
motion, it is called as kinematic pair.

Classification of Kinematic pairs

I. According to the type of relative motion between the elements

1. Sliding pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way
that one can only slide relative to the other, the pair is known as a sliding
pair. The piston and cylinder, cross-head and guides of a reciprocating
steam engine, ram and its guides in shaper, tail stock on the lathe bed etc.
are the examples of a sliding pair. A little consideration will show, that a
sliding pair has a completely constrained motion.

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2. Turning pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way
that one can only turn or revolve about a fixed axis of another link, the pair
is known as turning pair. A shaft with collars at both ends fitted into a
circular hole, the crankshaft in a journal bearing in an engine, lathe spindle
supported in head stock, cycle wheels turning over their axles etc. are the
examples of a turning pair. A turning pair also has a- completely
constrained motion.

3. Rolling pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way
that one rolls over another fixed link, the pair is known as rolling pair. Ball
and roller bearings are examples of rolling pair.

4. Screw pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way
that one element can turn about the other by screw threads, the pair is
known as screw pair. The lead screw of a lathe with nut, and bolt with a nut
are examples of a screw pair.

5. Spherical pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a
way that one element (with spherical shape) turns or swivels about the
other fixed element, the pair formed is called a spherical pair. The ball and
socket joint, attachment of a car mirror, pen stand etc., are the examples of
a spherical pair.

II. According to the type of contact between the elements.

The kinematic pairs according to the type of contact between the elements may
be classified as discussed below:
1. Lower pair. When the two elements of a pair have a surface contact when
relative motion takes place and the surface of one element slides over the
surface of the other, the pair formed is known as lower pair. It will be seen
that sliding pairs, turning pairs and screw pairs form lower pairs.

2. Higher pair. When the two elements of a pair have a line or point contact
when relative motion takes place and the motion between the two elements
is partly turning and partly sliding, then the pair is known as higher pair. A
pair of friction discs, toothed gearing, belt and rope drives, ball and roller
bearings and cam and follower are the examples of higher pairs.

Lower pair Higher pair

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III. According to the type of closure.

The kinematic pairs according to the type of closure between the elements may
be classified as discussed below:
1. Self-closed pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected together
mechanically in such a way that only required kind of relative motion
occurs, it is then known as self-closed pair. The lower pairs are self-closed
pair.

2. Force - closed pair: When the two elements of a pair are not connected
mechanically but are kept in contact by the action of external forces, the
pair is said to be a force-closed pair. The cam and follower is an example of
force closed pair, as it is kept in contact by the forces exerted by spring and
gravity.

closed pair Force closed pair (Cam & follower)

1.8 Kinematic chain
When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link is joined to
the first link to transmit definite motion (i.e. completely or successfully
constrained motion), it is called a kinematic chain.
In other words, a kinematic chain may be defined as a combination of kinematic
pairs, joined in such a way that each link forms a part of two pairs and the relative
motion between the links or elements is completely or successfully constrained.
For example, the crankshaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair with the bearings
which are fixed in a pair, the connecting rod with the crank forms a second
kinematic pair, the piston with the connecting rod forms a third pair and the
piston with the cylinder forms a fourth pair. The total combination of these links
is a kinematic chain.
Kinematic pair Kinematic chain
A pair is a joint of two links or elements When the Kinematic pairs are coupled in
of a machine. such a way that the last link is joined to the
Examples: first link to transmit definite motion, it is
1. Crank and connecting road. called a Kinematic chain.
2. Piston and cylinder. Examples:
1. Four bar chain.
2. Double slider crank chain.

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For a Kinematic chain:

➢ The relation between the number of pairs (𝑝) and the number of links (𝑙) of a
Kinematic chain.
𝒍 = 𝟐𝒑 − 𝟒(𝒊)
➢ The relation between the number of links (𝑙) and the number of joints (𝑗) of a
Kinematic chain.
𝟑
𝒋 = 𝒍 − 𝟐(𝒊𝒊)
𝟐
The equations (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖) are applicable only to kinematic chains, in which lower
pairs are used. These equations may also be applied to kinematic chains, in which
higher pairs are used. In that case each higher pair may be taken as equivalent to
two lower pairs with an additional element or link.

1.9 Number of Degrees of Freedom (Mobility) for Plane Mechanisms

A mechanical system’s mobility (M) can be classified according to the number of

degrees of freedom (DOF) that it possesses. The system’s DOF is equal to the
number of independent parameters (measurements) that are needed to uniquely
define its position in space at any instant of time. Note that DOF is defined with
respect to a selected frame of reference.

Next figure shows a pencil lying on a flat piece of paper with an x, y coordinate
system added. If we constrain this pencil to always remain in the plane of the
paper, three parameters (DOF) are required to completely define the position of
the pencil on the paper, two linear coordinates (x, y) to define the position of any
one point on the pencil and one angular coordinate (θ) to define the angle of the
pencil with respect to the axes. The minimum number of measurements needed
to define its position is shown in the figure as x, y, and θ. This system of the pencil
in a plane then has three DOF. Note that the particular parameters chosen to
define its position are not unique. Any alternate set of three parameters could be
used. There is an infinity of sets of parameters possible, but in this case, there
must be three parameters per set, such as two lengths and an angle, to define the
system’s position because a rigid body in plane motion has three DOF.

Now allow the pencil to exist in a three-dimensional world. Hold it above your
desktop and move it about. You now will need six parameters to define its six
DOF. One possible set of parameters that could be used is three lengths, (x, y, z),
plus three angles (θ, φ, ρ). Any rigid body in three‑space has six degrees of
freedom. Try to identify these six DOF by moving your pencil or pen with respect
to your desktop.
The pencil in these examples represents a rigid body, or link, which for purposes
of kinematic analysis we will assume to be incapable of deformation. We can later
superpose any deformations due to external or inertial loads onto our kinematic

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motions to obtain a more complete and accurate picture of the body’s behavior.
But remember, we are typically facing a blank sheet of paper at the beginning
stage of the design process. We cannot determine deformations of a body until
we define its size, shape, material properties, and loadings. Thus, at this stage we
will assume, for purposes of initial kinematic synthesis and analysis, that our
kinematic bodies are rigid and massless.

Fig. A rigid body in a plane has three DOF

In the design or analysis of a mechanism, one of the most important concern is

the number of degrees of freedom (also called movability) of the mechanism.

Degrees of Freedom (Mobility) is defined as the number of input parameters

(usually pair variables) which must be independently controlled in order to
bring the mechanism into a useful engineering purpose.

The Kutzbach criterion is used to determine the movability (DOF) of a

mechanism having plane motion directly from the number of links and the
number and types of joints which it includes.
𝑭 = 𝟑 × (𝒏 — 𝟏)— 𝟐𝑳 — 𝑯 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Where
F = Number of degrees of freedom of the mechanism,
n = Total number of links,
L = Total number of lower pairs (binary joints).
H = Total number of higher pairs.

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1.10 Solved Problems on the Degree of Freedom

1. Find the degree of freedom of the shown mechanisms.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Three- Bar Three- Bar Three- Bar Three- Bar Three- Bar
mechanism mechanism mechanism mechanism mechanism
Solution:
Case Total no. of links, Total no. of Total no. of lower Degree of
n higher pairs, H pairs, L Freedom
(a) 3 0 3 0
(b) 4 0 4 1
(c) 5 0 5 2
(d) 5 0 6 0
(e) 6 0 8 -1

COMMENTS on values of F:
• When F = 0: then the mechanism forms a structure and no relative motion
between the links is possible, cases (a) and (d).
• When F < 0: then there are redundant constraints in the chain and it
forms astatically' indeterminate structure, case (e).

• When F =1: then the mechanism can be driven by a single input to any
link to obtain a definite (constrained) motion of all links of the
mechanism, case (b).

• When F = 2: then two separate input motions are necessary to produce a

definite (constrained) motion for all links of the mechanism, case (c).

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2. Find the degree of freedom of the shown mechanisms.

𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑣 𝑣

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Solution
Total no. of Total no. of Total no. of Degree of
Case COMMENT ??
links, n higher pairs, H lower pairs, L freedom, F
(i) 4 0 4 1
(ii) 5 0 5 2
(iii) 6 0 7 1
(iv) 6 0 7 1
(v) 11 0 15 0
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3. Find the degree of freedom of the shown mechanisms.

Case (a)
n = Total number of links=3
L= Total number of lower pairs (binary joints) =2
H =Total number of higher pairs=l
F = Number of degrees of freedom of the mechanism:

𝐹 = 3 × (𝑛 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻 = 3 × (3 − 1) − 2 × 2 − 1 = 1
Then the mechanism can be driven by a single input to any link to obtain a definite
(constrained) motion of all links of the mechanism.
Case (b)
n = Total number of links=4
L= Total number of lower pairs (binary joints) =3
n =Total number of higher pairs=1
F - Number of degrees of freedom of the mechanism:

𝐹 = 3 × (𝑛 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻 = 3 × (4 − 1) − 2 × 3 − 1 = 2
Then two separate input motions are necessary to produce a definite (constrained) motion
for all links of the mechanism.

Note: If the friction at the contact is high enough to prevent slipping, the joint will be counted
as one degree of freedom pair, because only one relative motion will be possible between the
links.
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4. Determine the degree of freedom of the shown mechanism.

n = Total number of links=8

L= Total number of lower pairs (binary joints) =10
H =Total number of higher pairs=0

Degrees of freedom of the mechanism:

𝐹 = 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻
𝐹 = 3𝑥 (8 − 1) − 2𝑥10 − 1 = 1,
Then…..
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5. Determine the degree of freedom of the shown mechanism.

n = Total number of links=6

L= Total number of lower pairs (binary joints) =7
H =Total number of higher pairs=l

Degrees of freedom of the mechanism:

𝐹 = 3 × (𝑛 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻
𝐹 = 3 × (6 − 1) − 2 × 7 − 1 = 0,
Then.......
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1.11 Four bar chain:

A four-link mechanism or linkage is the most fundamental and the simplest
kinematic chain. It consists of four turning pairs.

Four links of a four-bar chain are:

• Crank (or) driver: A link that makes complete revolutions is called as

crank.
• Coupler: The link opposite to the fixed link is known as coupler.
• Lever or Rocker or follower: The link which makes a partial rotation or
oscillation is known as lever.
• Frame: The fixed link is known as frame.

Four bar linkage

1.12 Inversions of mechanism
A mechanism is one in which one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed.
Different mechanisms can be obtained by fixing different links of the same
kinematic chain. These are called as inversions of the mechanism.

By changing the fixed link, the number of mechanisms which can be obtained is
equal to the number of links. Excepting the original mechanism, all other
mechanisms will be known as inversions of original mechanism. The inversion of
a mechanism does not change the motion of its links relative to each other. First
will define the Grashof Condition.

1.13 THE GRASHOF CONDITION

The four-bar linkage has been shown above to be the simplest possible pin-
jointed mechanism for single-degree-of-freedom controlled motion. It also
appears in various disguises such as the slider-crank and the cam-follower. It is
in fact the most common and ubiquitous device used in machinery. It is also
extremely versatile in terms of the types of motion that it can generate.

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Simplicity is one mark of good design. The fewest parts that can do the job will
usually give the least expensive and most reliable solution. Thus, the four-bar
linkage should be among the first solutions to motion control problems to be
investigated. The Grashof condition is a very simple relationship that predicts the
rotation behavior or rotatability of a four-bar linkage’s inversions based only on
the link lengths.

Let:
𝑠 → length of shortest link
𝑙 → length of longest link
𝑝 → length of one remaining link
𝑞 → length of another remaining link

Then if:
𝒔+𝒍≥𝒑+𝒒

the linkage is Grashof and at least one link will be capable of making a full
revolution with respect to the ground plane. This is called a Class I kinematic
chain.
If the inequality is not true, then the linkage is non‑Grashof and no link will be
capable of a complete revolution relative to any other link. This is a Class II
kinematic chain.

Note that the above statements apply regardless of the order of assembly of the
links. That is, the determination of the Grashof condition can be made on a set of
unassembled links. Whether they are later assembled into a kinematic chain in
𝑠, 𝑙, 𝑝, 𝑞 or 𝑠, 𝑝, 𝑙, 𝑞 or any other order, will not change the Grashof condition.

The motions possible from a four-bar linkage will depend on both the Grashof
condition and the inversion chosen. The inversions will be defined with respect
to the shortest link. The motions are:

For the Class I case, 𝒔 + 𝒍 < 𝒑 + 𝒒:

• crank‑rocker: if we ground either link adjacent to the shortest, in which the

shortest link will fully rotate and the other link pivoted to ground will
oscillate.
• double crank: if we ground the shortest link, in which both links pivoted to
ground make complete revolutions as does the coupler.
• Grashof double-rocker: if we ground the link opposite the shortest, in
which both links pivoted to ground oscillate and only the coupler makes a
full revolution.

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For the Class II case, 𝒔 + 𝒍 > 𝒑 + 𝒒:

All inversions will be triple-rockers in which no link can fully rotate.

For the Class III case, 𝒔 + 𝒍 = 𝒑 + 𝒒:

Referred to as special-case Grashof and also as a Class III kinematic chain, all
inversions will be either double-cranks or crank-rockers.

Inversions of four bar chain.

There are three inversions of four bar mechanisms, which are obtained by fixing
different links of the kinematic chain. They are:

• Double Crank Mechanism

• Crank Rocker Mechanism
• Double Rocker Mechanism

Two crank-rocker inversions

Double-crank inversion Double-rocker inversion

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