Anubhav Kumar

1902160100022

CSE 3A

Assignment 1

1. 10 UPANISHAD

1. Isavasya Upanishad

Isavasya Upanishad is one of the few Upanishads like Taittiriya Upanishad for which the Svara is still
maintained and available for chanting. Svara means the intonation for chanting.

This Upanishad is a Mantra Upanishad because it occurs in the mantra or the Samhita portion of the
Vedas. So Isavasya can also be called a Samhitopanishad.

2. Kena Upanishad

This Upanishad is also called Kenopanishad. This is a small Upanishad in Sama Veda, and it has 4
chapters, each chapter known as a Kanda or Adhyaya.

And this Upanishad also begins with a Shanti Pathah which is a common Shanti Pathah to all Sama Veda
Upanishads.

3. Katha Upanishad

This Upanishad is also known as Kathopanishad and belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda.

This is a fairly big Upanishad consisting of 119 mantras spread over 2 chapters. Each chapter is called an
Adhyaya, and in each chapter there are 3 sections known as Vallis.
4. Prasna Upanishad

This Upanishad belongs to Atharva Veda like the Mundaka and Mandukya Upanishads.

While Mundaka Upanishad is considered to be a Samhitopanishad, Prasna Upanishad is considered to be

And generally a Brahmanopanishad is considered to be a commentary on the Samhitopanishad. So in

5. Mundaka Upanishad

This Upanishad can also be called as Mundakopanishad.

This Upanishad belongs to Atharva Veda and it is known by the name Mundaka Upanishad because of
several reasons.

“Mundaka” means “head”, and the word “head” generally indicates importance. For e.g. the head of an
organization.

6. Mandukya Upanishad

This Upanishad belongs to Atharva Veda like Mundaka Upanishad. In fact many people get confused
between Mundaka and Mandukya Upanishad.

This is the smallest Upanishad among the 10 main Upanishads, containing only 12 mantras.

7. Taittiriya Upanishad

This Upanishad belongs to Yajur Veda and as we saw earlier Yajur Veda has 2 branches: Krishna Yajur
Veda (Black school branch) and Shukla Yajur Veda (White school branch), and Taittiriya Upanishad
belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda.
 This is a very significant Upanishad, both in the Karma Kanda or ritualistic circles and also in Vedantic
circles.

8. Aitareya Upanishad

This Upanishad belongs to Rig Veda and among the 10 Upanishads the only one from Rig Veda.

This Upanishad was given out by a Rishi named Aitareya and hence the name of the Upanishad. Aitareya
Rishi is also known as Mahidasa. So some people call him Aitareya Mahidasa Rishi.

And this Rishi got the name of Aitareya because his mother’s name was Itara. “Aitareya” means he
who’s mother is Itara.

9. Chandogya Upanishad

Now we come to the last 2 Upanishads; Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, both of which are
voluminous Upanishads.

This Upanishad belongs to Sama Veda like Kena Upanishad, and it’s a big Upanishad consisting of 8
chapters and 627 mantras. In fact among the 10 Upanishads, Chandogya has the highest number of
mantras.

10. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

Like Isavasya Upanishad this Upanishad also belongs to Shukla Yajur Veda.

As we read earlier, since Isavasya is a Mantra Upanishad and Brihadaranyaka a Brahmana Upanishad,
Brihadaranyaka is considered to be a commentary or an elaboration of Isavasya.

Shukla Yajur Veda has 2 branches: Kanva Shakha and Madhyandina Shakha. “Shakha” means a “branch”.
And Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is found in both the branches.

2 . BRAHMI SCRIPT
Brahmi (/ˈbrɑːmi/; 𑀩𑁆𑀭𑀸𑀳𑁆𑀫𑀻; ISO: Brāhmī) is a writing system of ancient South Asia[3] that appeared as a fully
developed universal one in the third century BCE,and its descendants, the Brahmic scripts, continue to
be used today across South and Southeast Asia.Brahmi is an abugida which uses a system of diacritical
marks to associate vowels with consonant symbols. The writing system only went through relatively
minor evolutionary changes from the Mauryan period (3rd century BCE) down to the early Gupta period
(4th century CE), and it is thought that as late as the 4th century CE, a literate person could still read and
understand Mauryan inscriptions. Sometime thereafter, the capability to read the original Brahmi script
was lost. The earliest (indisputably dated) and best-known Brahmi inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of
Ashoka in north-central India, dating to 250–232 BCE. The decipherment of Brahmi became the focus of
European scholarly attention in the early 19th-century during East India Company rule in India, in
particular in the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta. Brahmi was deciphered by James Prinsep, the
secretary of the Society, in a series of scholarly articles in the Society's journal in the 1830s.His
breakthroughs built on the epigraphic work of Christian Lassen, Edwin Norris, H. H. Wilson and
Alexander Cunningham, among others.The origin of the script is still much debated, with most scholars
stating that Brahmi was derived from or at least influenced by one or more contemporary Semitic
scripts, while others favor the idea of an indigenous origin or connection to the much older and as yet
undeciphered Indus script of the Indus Valley Civilization. Brahmi was at one time referred to in English
as the "pin-man" script,that is "stick figure" script. It was known by a variety of other names, including
"lath", "Laṭ", "Southern Aśokan", "Indian Pali" or "Mauryan" (Salomon 1998, p. 17), until the 1880s when
Albert Étienne Jean Baptiste Terrien de Lacouperie, based on an observation by Gabriel Devéria,
associated it with the Brahmi script, the first in a list of scripts mentioned in the Lalitavistara Sūtra.
Thence the name was adopted in the influential work of Georg Bühler, albeit in the variant form
"Brahma".The Gupta script of the fifth century is sometimes called "Late Brahmi". The Brahmi script
diversified into numerous local variants classified together as the Brahmic scripts. Dozens of modern
scripts used across South and South East Asia have descended from Brahmi, making it one of the world's
most influential writing traditions.[page needed] One survey found 198 scripts that ultimately derive
from it.Among the inscriptions of Ashoka c. 3rd century BCE written in the Brahmi script a few numerals
were found, which have come to be called the Brahmi numerals. The numerals are additive and
multiplicative and, therefore, not place value;it is not known if their underlying system of numeration
has a connection to the Brahmi script. But in the second half of the first millennium CE, some
inscriptions in India and Southeast Asia written in scripts derived from the Brahmi did include numerals
that are decimal place value, and constitute the earliest existing material examples of the Hindu–Arabic
numeral system, now in use throughout the world.The underlying system of numeration, however, was
older, as the earliest attested orally transmitted example dates to the middle of the 3rd century CE in a
Sanskrit prose adaptation of a lost Greek work on astrology.

3. 4 VEDAS

The Vedas (/ˈveɪdəz/,[4] IAST: veda, Sanskrit: वेदः, lit. 'knowledge') are a large body of religious texts
originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit
literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[5][6][7]

There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.[8][9] Each Veda
has four subdivisions – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals,
ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies
and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual
knowledge).[8][10][11] Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).[12][13] The texts
of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodox sramana-traditions.

Rigveda

Main article: Rigveda

The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text. It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and
10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas). The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic
deities.

The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries
between c. 1500 and 1200 BC, (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the
northwest Indian subcontinent. According to Michael Witzel, the initial codification of the Rigveda took
place at the end of the Rigvedic period at ca. 1200 BCE, in the early Kuru kingdom.

The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles. The Veda begins with a small book addressed to
Agni, Indra, Soma and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each
deity collection; for each deity series, the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, but the number
of hymns per book increases. Finally, the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to
anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.

The rituals became increasingly complex over time, and the king's association with them strengthened
both the position of the Brahmans and the kings. The Rajasuya rituals, performed with the coronation of
a king, "set in motion [...] cyclical regenerations of the universe." In terms of substance, the nature of
hymns shift from praise of deities in early books to Nasadiya Sukta with questions such as, "what is the
origin of the universe?, do even gods know the answer?", the virtue of Dāna (charity) in society, and
other metaphysical issues in its hymns.

There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and linguistics in Rigveda and those found in
ancient central Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.

Samaveda

Main article: Samaveda

The Samaveda Samhita consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the
Rigveda. While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic period, the existing
compilation dates from the post-Rigvedic Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, between c. 1200 and 1000
BCE or "slightly later," roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda.

The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody collections (gāna, गान)
and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक). A melody in the song books corresponds to a
verse in the arcika books. Just as in the Rigveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with
hymns to Agni and Indra but shift to the abstract. Their meters shift also in a descending order. The
songs in the later sections of the Samaveda have the least deviation from the hymns derived from the
Rigveda.
In the Samaveda, some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated. Including repetitions, there are a total of
1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith. Two major recensions have
survived, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, and they were the
repertoire of the udgātṛ or "singer" priests.

Yajurveda

Main article: Yajurveda

The Yajurveda Samhita consists of prose mantras. It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were
said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire. The core
text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd
millennium BCE - younger than the Rigveda, and roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda, the
Rigvedic Khilani, and the Sāmaveda. Witzel dates the Yajurveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, after
c. 1200 and before 800 BCE. corresponding to the early Kuru Kingdom.

A page from the Taittiriya Samhita, a layer of text within the Yajurveda

The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda samhita includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct
yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda. Unlike the Samaveda which is almost
entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose, and
they are different from earlier Vedic texts linguistically. The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of
information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals.

There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the "Black" (Krishna) and the "White" (Shukla). The
term "black" implies "the un-arranged, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the
"white" (well arranged) Yajurveda. The White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the
Shatapatha Brahmana), the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of
the Black Yajurveda, texts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha,
Taittiriya), while of the White Yajurveda, two (Kanva and Madhyandina). The youngest layer of
Yajurveda text is not related to rituals nor sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary
Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy.

Atharvaveda

Main article: Atharvaveda

The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has about 760
hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda. Most of the verses are metrical,
but some sections are in prose. Two different versions of the text – the Paippalāda and the Śaunakīya –
have survived into the modern times. The Atharvaveda was not considered as a Veda in the Vedic era,
and was accepted as a Veda in late 1st millennium BCE. It was compiled last, probably around 900 BCE,
although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda, or earlier.

The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas", an epithet declared to be
incorrect by other scholars. The Samhita layer of the text likely represents a developing 2nd millennium
BCE tradition of magico-religious rites to address superstitious anxiety, spells to remove maladies
believed to be caused by demons, and herbs- and nature-derived potions as medicine. The text, states
Kenneth Zysk, is one of oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and
reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity". Many books of the Atharvaveda
Samhita are dedicated to rituals without magic, such as to philosophical speculations and to
theosophy.[180]

The Atharva veda has been a primary source for information about Vedic culture, the customs and
beliefs, the aspirations and frustrations of everyday Vedic life, as well as those associated with kings and
governance. The text also includes hymns dealing with the two major rituals of passage – marriage and
cremation. The Atharva Veda also dedicates significant portion of the text asking the meaning of a ritual.

4. SAPTANGA THEORY

According to Kautilya, a state has seven elements or constituents, namely, Swamin— the King, Amatya—
the Minister, Janapada—the Land, and the People, Durga—the Fortress, Kosha—the Treasury, Danda—
the Army and Mitra—the Allies. This entire set-up of the kingdom was described as Saptanga theory in
ancient India.

The Swamin refers to the king, regarded as the indispensable, integral and inseparable part of the state
in ancient India. King in all cases belonged to the noble and royal family who possessed qualities of both
head and heart. Amatya or the minister refers to all the officials involved in the functioning of the
government. It is their responsibility to ensure that the government runs smoothly. Janapada implies the
land and the people and, according to Kautilya, must be fertile.

The term ‘Durga’ in the ancient India means fort, which is considered an extremely important element.
Usually, forts were constructed on the borders of the territory. Kautilya, in fact, divided these forts into
water, hill, desert and forest forts. The fifth element is Kosha or the treasury. Kautilya opined that a king
must amass wealth to promote the welfare of the people and also maintain his army.

Danda referred to the armed forces to protect the state from aggres-sions and maintain law and order
within the state. Kautilya suggested that it is the responsibility of the king to see that his army is content
with its role in the state. Finally, Mitra refers to a friend or allies.

A king must have certain dependable friends who help him in all calamities. A king’s immediate
neighbour becomes an enemy and an enemy’s enemy becomes a friend of the king. The Saptanga
theory was, in fact, famous all through the ancient period.
The state was regarded as a physical organism and its elements as the parts of the body. It was stated
that king was considered the head, ministers as the eyes, and treasury as the face, army as the mind,
fort as the hands and country as a whole as the legs of the human body.

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5. SLAVERY IN ANCIENT INDIA

The early history of slavery in India is contested because it depends on the translations of terms such as
dasa and dasyu. Greek writer Megasthenes in his work Indika, while describing Mauryan empire states
that slavery was banned in Indian society. However, some sources suggest that slavery was likely to have
been a widespread institution in ancient India by the lifetime of the Buddha (sixth century BCE), and
perhaps even as far back as the Vedic period.

Slavery in India escalated during the Muslim domination of northern India after the 11th-century, after
Muslim rulers re-introduced slavery to the Indian subcontinent. It became a predominant social
institution with the enslavement of Hindus, along with the use of slaves in armies for conquest, a long-
standing practice within Muslim kingdoms at the time. According to Muslim historians of the Delhi
Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era, after the invasions of Hindu kingdoms, Indians were taken as
slaves, with many exported to Central Asia and West Asia. Many slaves from the Horn of Africa were
also imported into the Indian subcontinent to serve in the households of the powerful or the Muslim
armies of the Deccan Sultanates and the Mughal Empire.

Slavery in India continued through the 18th and 19th centuries. During the colonial era, Indians were
taken into different parts of the world as slaves by various European merchant companies as part of the
Indian Ocean slave trade.Over a million indentured labourers (referred to as girmitiyas) from the Indian
subcontinent were transported to various European colonies in Africa, Asia and the Americas to labour
on plantations and mines. The Portuguese imported Africans into their Indian colonies on the Konkan
coast between about 1530 and 1740.Slavery was abolished in the possessions of the East India Company
by the Indian Slavery Act, 1843.