Human Physiology (1)

Prepared & presented

Assist. prof. Dr.
Salim A. S. Al-Mosawi
salemsalemy@gmail.com
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 LECTURE CONTENT )1(
 The concept of physiology
 Branches of physiology
 Basic cell functions
 Foundation
 BRANCHES OF PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology can be further divided into the following branches:
•Human Physiology: It deals with the study of the mechanisms of the human body.
•Animal Physiology: It deals with the study of the mechanisms of different types of animals
•Plant Physiology: It deals with the study of the mechanisms of different types of plants.
•Cell Physiology: It deals with the study of the mechanisms of cells.
•Neurophysiology: It deals with the study of the mechanisms of neurons.
•Endocrine physiology: It deals with the study of the mechanism of the endocrine system.
•Molecular Physiology: It deals with the study of molecular mechanisms of genes, proteins,
& cellular structures. 3
 FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSIOLOGY
‫اسس علم الفسيولوجيا علم الوظائف‬
• Anatomy(‫)التشريح‬: is the study of the structure and organization of living
organisms, from the microscopic level of cells and tissues to the
macroscopic level of organs and systems. Anatomical knowledge is
important in physiology because the structure and function of an
organism are often dictated by one another.
• Biochemistry(‫)الكيمياء احلياتية‬: is the study of the chemical processes and
substances that occur within living organisms. Knowledge of
biochemistry provides the foundation for understanding cellular and
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molecular processes that are essential to the functioning of organisms.
Biophysics(‫)الفيزياء الحياتية‬:is the study of the physical properties of living organisms and
their interactions with their environment. It helps to explain how organisms sense and respond to different
stimuli, such as light, sound, and temperature, and how they maintain homeostasis, or a stable internal
environment.
Genetics(‫ )علم الوراثة‬: is the study of heredity and the variation of traits within and between
populations. It provides insights into the genetic basis of physiological processes and the ways in which
genes interact with the environment to influence an organism's phenotype.
Evolutionary biology(‫)علم االحياء التطوري‬: is the study of the processes that have
led to the diversity of life on Earth. It helps to explain the origin and adaptive significance of physiological
processes and the ways in which organisms have evolved to cope with their environment.
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 Types of Physiology: )‫أنواع الفسلجة ( علم الوظائف‬
A. Cell physiology: (‫ )فسلجة اخللية‬researchers study how cells carry out their
processes and interact with each other. Two areas of interest include how
molecules are transported across the cell membrane and how neurons
transmit electrical impulses.
B. Developmental physiology: (‫ )فسلجة النمو‬looks at how physiology changes
during embryonic development and also across the lifespan of an
organism.
C.Evolutionary physiology: (‫ )الفسلجة التطورية‬looks at how physiology has
changed over many generations through evolution. It can incorporate
behavior, sexual selection, and changes based on geographic range, 6

among other factors.

D. Systems physiology: (‫ )فسلجة االجهزة‬this subfield emerged in the 1990s. It is the
mathematical modeling of biological systems, and often focuses on components such as
metabolism and cell-to-cell signaling. Researchers use computational models to better
understand biological processes.
E. Cellular physiology: (‫ )فسلجة اخللية‬It is deal with the study of physiological processes
occurring within and among the cells and intracellular communication and behavior
F. Plant physiology : (‫ )فسلجة النبات‬It is concerns the study of plant function and
behavior including all the processes of growth, reproduction, metabolism, and defense.
G.Viral physiology: (‫ )فسلجة الفريوسات‬deals with the investigation of biological
processes and activities of viruses
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H. Bacterial physiology: (‫ )فسلجة البكرتيا‬It is deals with the life-supporting functions of
bacteria, which allow the bacterial cell to grow and reproduce.
I. Humans Physiology: (‫)الفسلجة البشرية‬It is the science of how the human body
functions in fitness and illness. It describes the chemistry and physics behind the basic body
functions. It helps in knowing the basic body functions, and to find the treatment of disease.
It helps us comprehend what occurs in a healthy body and normal life and what goes on
when someone gets sick.

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 CELL PHYSIOLOGY ‫فسلجة الخلية‬

General Functions:‫الوظائف العامة للخلية‬

The basic living unit of the body is the cell. Each organ is an aggre ate of
many different cells held together by intercellular supporting structures.
Each type of cell is specially adapted to perform one or a few particular
functions. there are about 75 trillion additional cells of other types that
perform different functions. Although the many cells of the body often
differ markedly from one another. 9
 General Subdivisions of a Cell
A) Nucleus B) Plasma Membrane
(regulatory center of the cell) selectively permeable
boundary between the cell and
the environment

C)Cytoplasm D) Organelles
(everything between the are individual compartments
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plasma membrane and the in the cytoplasm
nuclear compartment)
 Basic Physiological Functions of the Cell

➢Transport across the cell membrane

➢Bioelectrical phenomena of the cell

➢Contraction of muscles 11
 The Cell Membrane System
➢Membranes surrounding the cell
➢Membrane systems inside the cell
➢The nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, Endosomes &lysosomes
form the endomembrane system.
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 Composition of the cell membrane
1) Lipids
2) Proteins
3) Carbohydrates
➢Protein 55%
➢Phospholipids 25%
➢Cholesterol 13%
➢Other lipids 4%
➢Carbohydrates 3% 13
 CELL MEMBRANE : (‫)غشاء الخلية‬
The plasma membrane
(often called the cell
membrane) defines the
boundaries of a cell . similar
membranes form the
boundaries of the organelles
within cells. All membranes
are composed of the same
structural components. The
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plasma membrane consists
of:
 ‫‪Lipids are Amphipathic‬‬
‫السطح المائي‬ ‫مجموعة محبة للماء‬
‫قطبي‬ ‫مجموعة محبة للماء‬

‫ال قطبي‬

‫مجموعة كارهة للماء‬

‫‪15‬‬
 CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
globular masses floating in the lipid
bilayer. These are membrane proteins,
most of which are glycoproteins. Two
types of proteins occur: integral proteins
that protrude all the way through the
membrane, and peripheral proteins that
are attached only to one surface of the
membrane and do not penetrate all the
way through, when the protein extends
throughout the thickness of the
membrane it is called trans membrane 16

protein channel
 The importance of proteins in the plasma membrane
1. Structural proteins contribute to
the structure of cell membrane.
2. Some cell membrane proteins are cell
adhesion molecule that anchor cells to
their neighbors or to the basal lamina.

3. Some proteins function as a pumps

for active transport of substances.

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 The importance of proteins in the plasma membrane

4. Carrier proteins transport substances

down their electrochemical gradient.
5. Ion channels‖ permit passage of ions in
to or out of cell when activated .
6. Aquaporin‖ are membrane proteins
present in most cells , which act as water
channels permitting high rate of water flow
through the membrane.

7. The peripheral proteins function almost

entirely as enzymes or as controllers of
transport of substances through the cell 18

membrane pores.
 PHOSPHOLIPIDS: ‫الدهون الفوسفاتية‬
bilayer, which is a thin, double-layered film of lipids—each layer only one
molecule thick—that is continuous over the entire cell surface. One end
of each phospholipid molecule is soluble in water; that is, it is hydrophilic.
The other end is soluble only in fats; that is, it is hydrophobic. The
phosphate end of the phospholipid is hydrophilic, and the fatty acid
portion is hydrophobic. The polar (charged) phosphate end of the
molecules are oriented toward the inner & outer surface, while non-polar
(fatty acid) ends point toward each other in the interior of the membrane.
The cholesterol molecules in the membrane are also lipid in nature. These
molecules, in a sense, are dissolved in the bilayer of the membrane. They
mainly help determine the degree of permeability (or impermeability) of
the bilayer to water-soluble constituents of body fluids. Cholesterol
controls much of the fluidity of the membrane as well. 19
 CARBOHYDRATES: ‫الكربوهيدرات‬
It is having little structural function in
the cell except as parts of glycoprotein
molecules, but they play a major role in
nutrition of the cell. Sugar combine with
proteins to form glycoproteins or with
lipids to form glycolipids . Some of
Carbohydrates serve as recognition sites
that allow cells to recognize other cells
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in cell- to- cell interactions.
 CELL COMPONENTS FUNCTIONS )‫وظائف تراكيب الخلية(العضيات‬
Cell Parts function Cell Parts function

Cell Controls what enters and

membrane leave the cell

Nuclear Controls what enters and

membrane leave the nucleus
Nucleus Controls center of cell

chromosomes Genetic information in the

nucleus

Endoplasmic Transport system in cell

Reticulum

Peroxisomes: formed by self- replication or budding from smooth ER, they are similar to
lysosomes, but smaller in size . they contain enzymes(oxidases) that oxidize various organic
substances producing H2O2; thus, helps in the detoxification of injurious substances
 Transport of Substances Through the Cell Membrane
‫نقل المواد عبر الغشاء الخلوي‬
I.Diffusion: ‫االنتشار‬The diffusion is the net
movement of similar molecules from their area of
higher concentration to their area of lower concentration
❖ Movement occur in all directions .
❖ Movement occur along the gradient.
2.Facilitated Diffusion: ‫االنتشار الميسر‬
. Infacilitated diffusion, the molecule combine with a
carrier substance (a protein molecule) that is
embedded in the membrane This type of diffusion is
like other types of diffusion except for the carrier‘s
ability to help the molecule move across the
membrane .( its move from higher to lower
concentration) . due to molecule too large to pass
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through the pores and or not sufficiently soluble in the
membrane lipids to diffuse through them
Osmosis: ‫االزموزية‬
move of water from its own area of higher concentration to its own area of lower
concentration at a greater rate than it move in the opposite direction . This net
movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane is Osmosis . Osmosis
occur particularly if the membrane is permeable only to water molecules.
Osmotic pressure: ‫الضغط االزموزي‬
is the force under which water moves from an area of low solute
concentration to an area of high solute concentration.
Tonicity: ‫التوتر‬
the term tonicity is used to describe the osmolality of a solution relative
to plasma. Tonicity is a measure of the ability of the solution to change
the volume of cell by altering their water content 23
 Isotonic: Solution that have the same osmolality as that of
plasma are said to be isotonic to that of plasma , e.g. 0.9 %
sodium chloride , 5% dextrose in water etc.

Hypertonic: Solution is hypertonic when it causes a net

movement of water out of the cell ; that is , when the volume
of the cell decreases & the volume of the solution increases

Hypotonic :Solution is hypotonic when it causes a net

movement of water in to the cell; that is when the volume of
the cell increases & the volume of the solution decreases.

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 Active Transport: ‫النقل الفعال‬
The transport of a substances against a gradient using an enzyme, a carrier, & ATP. Active
transport causes molecules to move against concentration gradients from areas of lower to areas
of higher concentration.
1. Attaches to a carrier molecule that causes the substance to move across the cell membrane.
2. An enzyme that is usually part of the carrier molecule release energy from ATP . The energy is
required because the substances is being moved against the concentration gradient.
The carrier molecule is a protein or glycoprotein & it has on its surface a specific carrier site for
the substance it transports.
Actively Transported substances include:-
1- Ions such as Na+ , K+, Ca++, Fe++ , H+& I-
2- Some sugar , A.A , & other organic substances are moved across membranes with 25

the energy made available by the active transport of Na+ in the same direction.
 Endocytosis ( Pinocytosis & Phagocytosis )

Pinocytosis : )‫)الشرب اخللوي‬

also called cell drinking , the process by
which the cell take in small particles
including water droplets.
Phagocytosis : )‫(االكل الخلوي‬
also called cell eating, the process by
which cells take in large particles. Protein
molecules, water, & ions can be taken in by
pinocytosis. Debris from dead cells &
microorganisms are taken in by phagocytosis.
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 Endocytosis ‫البلعمة الخلوية‬
( Pinocytosis & Phagocytosis )
1) Pinocytosis: ‫ الشرب الخلوي‬also called cell drinking , the process by which the
cell take in small particles including water droplets .
2) Phagocytosis: ‫األكل الخلوي‬also called cell eating, the process by which cells
take in large particles. Protein molecules, water, & ions can be taken in by
pinocytosis. Debris from dead cells & microorganisms are taken in by phagocytosis.
Exocytosis: ‫ اإلخراج الخلوي‬is a process for moving large molecules out of the
cell to the cell exterior. Commonly, these macromolecules originate in
storage vacuoles inside the cell and are moved to the exterior after an
appropriate signal for this action
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 The Extracellular Fluid-The “Internal Environment "
"‫ "البيئة الداخلية‬- ‫السائل خارج الخاليا‬
About %60 of the adult human body is fluid, mainly a
water solution of ions and other substances. Although most
of this fluid is inside the cells and is called intracellular
fluid, about one third is in the spaces outside the cells and
is called extracellular fluid. This extracellular fluid is in
constant motion throughout the body. It is transported
rapidly in the circulating blood and then mixed between
the blood and the tissue fluids by diffusion through the
capillary walls.
In the extracellular fluid are the ions and nutrients
needed by the cells to maintain cell life. Thus, all cells live
in essentially the same environment the extracellular fluid.
For this reason, the extracellular fluid is also called the
internal environment of the body. 29
 Differences Between Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids
The extracellular fluid contains large amounts of Na+, Cl-, and
Co3- plus nutrients for the cells, such as oxygen, glucose, fatty
acids, and amino acids. It also contains Co2 that is being
transported from the cells to the lungs to be excreted, plus other
cellular waste products that are being transported to the kidneys
for excretion. Extracellular Fluid
Intracellular fluid

The intracellular fluid differs significantly from the extracellular

fluid; specifically, it contains large amounts of K+, Mg+, and Po4-3
instead of the Na+ and Cl- found in the extracellular fluid. Special
mechanisms for transporting ions through the cell membranes
maintain these differences. 30
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 Length – scale; Units
Angstrom =1A0=1/10,000,000.000= 10-10 m
Nanometer=1nm=1/1,000,000,000meter=10-9m
Micrometer 1µm=1/1,000,000 meter=10-6m
Millimeter=1mm=1/1,000 meter=10-3m
# Interatomic distance ~ a few A0
# A human hair is ~ 50µm

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 Blood: ‫الدم‬
is a fluid connective tissue that consists of plasma,
blood cells and platelets. It circulates throughout
our body delivering oxygen and nutrients to various
cells and tissues. It makes up 8% of our body
weight. An average adult possesses around 5-6 liters
of blood.
Composition: ‫ المكونات‬There are many cellular
structures in the composition of blood. When a
sample of blood is spun in a centrifuge machine,
they separate into the following constituents:
Plasma, buffy coat and erythrocytes. Thus, blood
contains RBC, WBC, platelets and plasma 34
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 Components of Blood Plasma: ‫مكونات بالزما الدم‬
1) Plasma: ‫ البالزما‬The liquid state of blood
can be contributed to plasma as it makes
up ~55% of blood. It is pale ‫ باهت‬yellow in
color and when separated ‫فصتل‬. Blood plasma
consists of salts, nutrients, water and
enzymes. Blood plasma also contains
important proteins and other components
necessary for overall health. Hence, blood
plasma transfusions are given to patients
with liver failure and life-threatening
injuries. 36
Blood plasma has several protein components. Proteins
in blood plasma are:
• Serum globulin 38%
• Serum albumin 58%
• Fibrinogen 4%
The serum contains only globulin and albumin.
Fibrinogen is absent in serum because it is converted into
fibrin during blood clotting.

‫انزيم بروتيني‬
‫بيضوي الشكل‬ 37
2) Erythrocytes (RBC): Red blood cells consist of Hemoglobin,
a protein. They are produced by the bone marrow to primarily
carry oxygen to the body and carbon dioxide away from it.
3)White Blood Cells (WBC):are responsible for fighting
foreign pathogens (such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi) that
enter our body. They circulate throughout our body and originate
from the bone marrow.

4) Platelets: Tiny disc-shaped cells that help regulate blood flow

when any part of the body is damaged, thereby aiding in fast
recovery through clotting of blood. The above-stated elements
form the composition of blood in humans.
The only vertebrate without hemoglobin is the crocodile
icefish. It derives its oxygen requirement directly from the
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cold, oxygen-rich water where it lives.

•Erythrocyte : ( RBC)
are biconcave‫ مقعرة الوجهين‬discs, they
have no nucleus and cytoplasmic
organelles. They contain a red colored
protein called hemoglobin. Their main
function is in gas transport, mainly of O2
but they also carry some CO2.
•Human erythrocytes are 7.5 µm in
diameter, 2.5 µm thick at the rim ‫ حافة‬and
0.8 µm thick in the center.
The biconcave shape increases their
surface area for gas exchange, and the
thinness of the central portion allows
fast entry and exit of gases.
•The cells are flexible‫ مرنة‬so they can
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squeeze through narrow capillaries.
The normal concentration of Erythrocytes in blood is
approximately 3.9- 5.5 million per microliter in
women and 4.1-6 million n per the blood.
• Their life span in circulation is about 120 days.
• The process of RBC development from stem cells
takes about 7 days and is called erythropoiesis.

• The immature cells are released into the blood stream as reticulocytes
and then mature into erythrocytes over 1-2 days within circulation.
During this time, they lose their nucleus and therefore become incapable
of division.
• The hormone Erythropoietin and substances such as Iron, Folic Acid, and
vitamin B12 are essential for the production of Erythrocytes.
• Erythropoietin hormone is a glycoprotein hormone produced in the
kidneys and stimulates the production of globin (the protein component of
Hb), enhances the release reticulocytes in the circulation and enhances 40

reticulocytes maturation to mature RBC.

 Physiological Factors influencing RBC number
‫العوامل الفسيولوجية المؤثرة على عدد خاليا الدم الحمراء‬
❖ RBC count is very high at birth (8-10 million\mm.
❖ The count is higher in children than in adults.
❖ RBC count is raised at high altitude, in warm
temperature, during excitement.
❖ In women RBC count is relatively low during
pregnancy.

❖ A fall in RBC count is seen low altitude.

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 Homework Activity
❖ Why is it preferable to donate blood and take blood from men more than women?

❖ Why is anemia more common in women than in men?

❖ Why are most running races won by Africans?

❖Why is regular electrolyte analysis (Na+, K+) done for kidney patients?

❖Why is water not given to the patient when he comes out of surgery and under
the influence of anesthesia?

It must be submitted in writing on a regular paper.

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‫‪Thank you‬‬
‫ا‪.‬م‪.‬د‪ .‬سامل عبداهلل سلمان‬