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Physics
for Cambridge IGCSE™
COURSEBOOK

David Sang, Mike Follows & Sheila Tarpey

 Contents
How to use this series

How to use this book

Introduction

1 Making measurements
1.1 Measuring length and volume
1.2 Density
1.3 Measuring time

2 Describing motion
2.1 Understanding speed
2.2 Distance–time graphs
2.3 Understanding acceleration
2.4 Calculating speed and acceleration

3 Forces and motion

3.1 We have lift-off
3.2 Mass, weight and gravity
3.3 Falling and turning
3.4 Force, mass and acceleration
3.5 Momentum
3.6 More about scalars and vectors

4 Turning effects
4.1 The moment of a force
4.2 Calculating moments
4.3 Stability and centre of gravity
5 Forces and matter
5.1 Forces acting on solids
5.2 Stretching springs
5.3 The limit of proportionality and the spring constant
5.4 Pressure
5.5 Calculating pressure

6 Energy stores and transfers

6.1 Energy stores
6.2 Energy transfers
6.3 Conservation of energy
6.4 Energy calculations

7 Energy resources
7.1 The energy we use
7.2 Energy from the Sun

8 Work and power

8.1 Doing work
8.2 Calculating work done
8.3 Power
8.4 Calculating power

9 The kinetic particle model of matter

9.1 States of matter
9.2 The kinetic particle model of matter
9.3 Gases and the kinetic model
9.4 Temperature and the Celsius scale
9.5 The gas laws

10 Thermal properties of matter

10.1 Thermal expansion
 10.2 Specific heat capacity
10.3 Changing state

11 Thermal energy transfers

11.1 Conduction
11.2 Convection
11.3 Radiation
11.4 Consequences of thermal energy transfer

12 Sound
12.1 Making sounds
12.2 How does sound travel?
12.3 The speed of sound
12.4 Seeing and hearing sounds

13 Light
13.1 Reflection of light
13.2 Refraction of light
13.3 Total internal reflection
13.4 Lenses
13.5 Dispersion of light

14 Properties of waves
14.1 Describing waves
14.2 Speed, frequency and wavelength
14.3 Explaining wave phenomena

15 The electromagnetic spectrum

15.1 Electromagnetic waves
15.2 Electromagnetic hazards
15.3 Communicating using electromagnetic waves

16 Magnetism
 16.1 Permanent magnets
16.2 Magnetic fields

17 Static electricity
17.1 Charging and discharging
17.2 Explaining static electricity
17.3 Electric fields

18 Electrical quantities
18.1 Current in electric circuits
18.2 Voltage in electric circuits
18.3 Electrical resistance
18.4 More about electrical resistance
18.5 Electrical energy, work and power

19 Electrical circuits
19.1 Circuit components
19.2 Combinations of resistors
19.3 Electrical safety

20 Electromagnetic forces
20.1 The magnetic effect of a current
20.2 Force on a current-carrying conductor
20.3 Electric motors
20.4 Beams of charged particles and magnetic fields

21 Electromagnetic induction
21.1 Generating electricity
21.2 Power lines and transformers
21.3 How transformers work

22 The nuclear atom

 22.1 Atomic structure
22.2 Protons, neutrons and electrons

23 Radioactivity
23.1 Radioactivity all around us
23.2 Radioactive decay
23.3 Activity and half-life
23.4 Using radioisotopes

24 Earth and the Solar System

24.1 Earth, Sun and Moon
24.2 The Solar System

25 Stars and the Universe

25.1 The Sun
25.2 Stars and galaxies
25.3 The Universe

Appendix

Key equations

Acknowledgements
 How to use this book
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 Introduction
Studying physics
Why study physics? Some people study physics for the simple reason that they
find it interesting. Physicists study matter, energy and their interactions. They
might be interested in observing the tiniest sub-atomic particles, or
understanding the vastness of the Universe itself.
On a more human scale, physicists study materials to try to predict and control
their properties. They study the interactions of radiation with matter, including
the biological materials we are made of.
Other people are more interested in the applications of physics. They want to
know how it can be used, perhaps in an engineering project, or for medical
purposes. Depending on how our knowledge is applied, it can make the world a
better place.
Some people study physics as part of their course because they want to become
some other type of scientist – perhaps a chemist, biologist or geologist. These
branches of science draw a great deal on ideas from physics, and physics may
draw on them.

Thinking physics
How do physicists think? One of the characteristics of physicists is that they try
to simplify problems – reduce them to their basics – and then solve them by
applying some very fundamental ideas. For example, you will be familiar with
the idea that matter is made of tiny particles that attract and repel each other and
move about. This is a very useful model, which has helped us to understand the
behaviour of matter, how sound travels, how electricity flows, and much more.
Once a fundamental idea is established, physicists look around for other areas
where it might help to solve problems. One of the surprises of 20th century
physics was that, once physicists had begun to understand the fundamental
particles of which atoms are made, they realised that this helped to explain the
earliest moments in the history of the Universe, at the time of the Big Bang.
Medicine is often seen as a biological career but this doctor will use many
applications of physics, from X-rays to robotic limbs, in her work.

Physics relies on mathematics. Physicists measure quantities and analyse data.

They invent mathematical models – equations and so on – to explain their
findings. In fact, a great deal of mathematics has been developed by physicists to
help them to understand their experimental results. An example of this is the
work of Edward Witten, who designed new mathematical tools to unify different
versions of superstring theory – a theory which tries to unite all the forces and
particles you are learning about.
Computers have made a big difference in physics, allowing physicists to process
vast amounts of data rapidly. Computers can process data from telescopes,
control distant spacecraft and predict the behaviour of billions of atoms in a solid
material.
In April 2019 the first pictures were released of a black hole. The central area is
so dense that light cannot escape it. This image was the result of hundreds of
scientists using a network of radio telescopes around the world, processing many
petabytes of data – 1 petabyte is equal to 1 million gigabytes or 1 × 1015 bytes.
The more you study physics, the more you will come to realise how the ideas
join up. Indeed, the ultimate goal for many physicists is to link all ideas into one
unifying ‘theory of everything’.

Stephen Hawking was a brilliant young student when he was diagnosed with
motor neurone disease. He was expected to live only a few years, but at the time
of his death at 76 he was still working as a professor at Cambridge University.
One of his main aims was to unite relativity (which explains the very large) and
quantum physics (which explains the very small).

Hawking came to believe this would not happen, but was glad about this: ‘I’m
now glad that our search for understanding will never come to an end, and that
we will always have the challenge of new discovery. Without it, we would
stagnate.’

Using physics
The practical applications of physics are far reaching. Many physicists work in
economics and finance, using ideas from physics to predict how markets will
change. Others use their understanding of particles in motion to predict how
traffic will flow, or how people will move in crowded spaces. This type of
modelling can be used to help us understand the spread of pathogens, such as the
virus which caused the 2020 Covid-19 pandemic.
Physics is being used to find solutions for the world’s major problems. New
methods of generating electricity without adding to greenhouse gas emissions
are helping to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. Developments in battery
technology allow us to store electrical energy, making electric vehicles a reality.

If this child drives it will probably be in an electric vehicle like this one. Many
countries aim to phase out polluting, fossil fuel powered vehicles by the middle
of the 21st century. Physicists are improving car design and battery life to make
this feasible.

Joining in
So, when you study physics, you are doing two things.
i You are joining in with a big human project – learning more about the
 world around us and applying that knowledge.
ii At the same time, you are learning to think like a physicist – how to apply
some basic ideas, how to look critically at data, and how to recognise
underlying patterns. Whatever path you take, these skills will remain with
you and help you make sense of the rapidly changing world in which we
live.
 Chapter 1
Making measurements

IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:

• learn how to take measurements of length, volume and time
• perform experiments to determine the density of an object
• predict whether an object will float

predict whether one liquid will float on another.

GETTING STARTED
In pairs, either take the measurements or write down how you would do the
following:
• measure the length, width and thickness of this book and work out its
volume
• measure the thickness of a sheet of paper that makes up this book
• measure the length of a journey (for example, on a map) that is not
straight.
Now discuss how you would work out the density of:
• a regular-shaped solid
• an irregular-shaped solid
• a liquid.

ARE WE CLEVERER THAN OUR ANCESTORS WERE?

People tend to dismiss people who lived in the past as less intelligent than
we are. After all, they used parts of their bodies for measuring distances. A
cubit was the length of the forearm from the tip of the middle finger to the
elbow. However, the ancient Egyptians knew this varied between people.
Therefore, in around 3000 BCE, they invented the royal cubit (Figure 1.1),
marked out on a piece of granite and used this as a standard to produce
cubit rods of equal length.

Figure 1.1: Cubit rod.

The Ancient Egyptians were experts at using very simple tools like the
cubit rod. This enabled them to build their pyramids accurately.
Eratosthenes, a brilliant scientist who lived in Egypt in about 300 BCE,
showed the same care and attention to detail. This allowed him to work out
that the Earth has a circumference of 40 000 km (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Eratosthenes used shadows and geometry to work out the
circumference of the Earth.

In contrast, there are many recent examples where incorrect measurements

have led to problems. Although the Hubble Space Telescope had the most
precisely shaped mirror ever made, the original images it produced were
not as clear as expected. Tiny mistakes in measuring meant that it had the
wrong shape and it took a lot of effort to account for these errors.
Discussion questions
1 You cannot always depend on your eyes to judge lengths. Look at
Figure 1.3 and decide which line is longer? Check by using a ruler.

Figure 1.3: Which line is longer?

2 Eratosthenes may have hired a man to pace the distance between

Alexandria and Syene (present-day Aswan) to calculate the Earth’s
circumference. People have different stride lengths so some people
take longer steps than others. Discuss the possible ways that anyone
with any stride length could have measured the distance between these
towns accurately.
1.1 Measuring length and volume
In physics, we make measurements of many different lengths, for example, the
length of a piece of wire, the height of liquid in a tube, the distance moved by an
object, the diameter of a planet or the radius of its orbit. In the laboratory,
lengths are often measured using a ruler (such as a metre ruler).
Measuring lengths with a ruler is a familiar task. But when you use a ruler, it is
worth thinking about the task and just how reliable your measurements may be.
Consider measuring the length of a piece of wire (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Simple measurements still require careful technique, for example,
finding the length of a wire.

• The wire must be straight, and laid closely alongside the ruler. (This may be
tricky with a bent piece of wire.)
• Look at the ends of the wire. Are they cut neatly, or are they ragged? Is it
difficult to judge where the wire begins and ends?
• Look at the markings on the ruler. They are probably 1 mm apart, but they
may be quite wide. Line one end of the wire up against the zero on the
scale. Because of the width of the mark, this may be awkward to judge.
• Look at the other end of the wire and read the scale. Again, this may be
tricky to judge.
Now you have a measurement, with an idea of how precise it is. You can
probably determine the length of the wire to within a millimetre. But there is
something else to think about – the ruler itself. How sure can you be that it is
correctly calibrated? Are the marks at the ends of a metre ruler separated by
exactly one metre? Any error in this will lead to an inaccuracy (probably small)
in your result.
The point here is to recognise that it is always important to think critically about
the measurements you make, however straightforward they may seem. You have
to consider the method you use, as well as the instrument (in this case, the ruler).

More measurement techniques

If you have to measure a small length, such as the thickness of a wire, it may be
better to measure several thicknesses and then calculate the average. You can
use the same approach when measuring something very thin, such as a sheet of
paper. Take a stack of 500 sheets and measure its thickness with a ruler (Figure
1.5). Then divide by 500 to find the thickness of one sheet.

Figure 1.5: Making multiple measurements.

For some measurements of length, such as curved lines, it can help to lay a
thread along the line. Mark the thread at either end of the line and then lay it
along a ruler to find the length. This technique can also be used for measuring
the circumference of a cylindrical object such as a wooden rod or a measuring
cylinder.

Measuring volumes
There are two approaches to measuring volumes, depending on whether or not
the shape is regular.
For a cube or cuboid, such as a rectangular block, measure the length, width and
height of the object and multiply the measurements together. For objects of other
regular shapes, such as spheres or cylinders, you may have to make one or two
measurements and then look up the equation for the volume.
For liquids, measuring cylinders can be used as shown in Figure 1.6. (Recall that
these are designed so that you look at the scale horizontally, not at an oblique
angle, and read the level of the bottom of the meniscus.) The meniscus is the
curved upper surface of a liquid, caused by surface tension. It can curve up or
down but the surface of water in a measuring cylinder curves downwards. Think
carefully about the choice of cylinder. A 1 litre (or a 1 dm3) cylinder is unlikely
to be suitable for measuring a small volume such as 5 cm3. You will get a more
accurate answer using a 10 cm3 cylinder.

Figure 1.6: A student measuring the volume of a liquid. Her eyes are level with
the scale so that she can accurately measure where the meniscus meets the scale.

Measuring volume by displacement

Most objects do not have a regular shape, so we cannot find their volumes
simply by measuring the lengths of their sides. Here is how to find the volume of
an irregularly shaped object. This technique is known as measuring volume by
displacement.
• Select a measuring cylinder that is about three or four times larger than the
object. Partially fill it with water (Figure 1.7), enough to cover the object.
Note the volume of the water.

Figure 1.7: Measuring volume by displacement.

• Immerse the object in the water. The level of water in the cylinder will
increase, because the object pushes the water out of the way and the only
way it can move is upwards. The increase in its volume is equal to the
volume of the object.

Units of length and volume

In physics, we generally use SI units (this is short for Le Système International
d’Unités or The International System of Units). The SI unit of length is the
metre (m). Table 1.1 shows some alternative units of length, together with some
units of volume. Note that the litre and millilitre are not official SI units of
volume, and so are not used in this book. One litre (1 l) is the same as 1 dm3, and
one millilitre (1 ml) is the same as 1 cm3.
Quantity Units
length metre (m)
1 decimetre (dm) = 0.1 m
1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 m
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 m
1 micrometre (µm) = 0.000 001 m
 1 kilometre (km) = 1000 m
volume cubic metre (m3)
1 cubic centimetre (cm3) = 0.000 001 m3
1 cubic decimetre (dm3) = 0.001 m3
Table 1.1: Some units of length and volume in the SI system.

Questions
1 The volume of a piece of wood which floats in water can be measured as
shown in Figure 1.8.
a Write a paragraph to describe the procedure.
b State the volume of the wood.

Figure 1.8: Measuring the volume of an object that floats.

2 A stack of paper contains 500 sheets of paper. The stack has dimensions of
0.297 m × 21.0 cm × 50.0 mm.
a What is the thickness of one sheet of paper?
b What is the volume of the stack of paper in cm3?
1.2 Density
Our eyes can deceive us. When we look at an object, we can judge its volume.
However, we can only guess its mass. We may guess incorrectly, because we
misjudge the density. You may offer to carry someone’s bag, only to discover
that it contains heavy books. A large box of chocolates may have a mass of only
200 g.
The mass of an object is the quantity (amount) of matter it is made of. Mass is
measured in kilograms. But density is a property of a material. It tells us how
concentrated its mass is. You will learn more about the meaning of mass and
how it differs from weight in Chapter 3.
In everyday speech, we might say that lead is heavier than wood. We mean that,
given equal volumes of lead and wood, the lead is heavier. In scientific terms,
the density of lead is greater than the density of wood. So we define density as
shown, in words and as an equation.
Density is the mass per unit volume for a substance.

KEY EQUATION
mass
density = volume
m
p = v

The symbol for density is ρ, the Greek letter rho. The SI unit of density is kg/m3
(kilograms per cubic metre). You may come across other units, as shown in
Table 1.2.
Unit of mass Unit of volume Unit of density Density of water
kilograms per
kilogram, kg cubic metre, m3 1000 kg/m3
cubic metre
cubic decimetre, kilograms per
kilogram, kg 1.0 kg/dm3
dm3 cubic decimetre
cubic centimetre, grams per cubic
gram, g 1.0 g/cm3
cm3 centimetre
Table 1.2: Units of density.

Values of density
Some values of density are shown in Table 1.3. Gases have much lower densities
than solids or liquids.
Material Density / kg/m3
Gases air 1.29
hydrogen 0.09
helium 0.18
carbon dioxide 1.98
Liquids water 1000
alcohol (ethanol) 790
mercury 13 600
Solids ice 920
wood 400–1200
polyethene 910–970
glass 2500–4200
steel 7500–8100
lead 11 340
silver 10 500
gold 19 300
Table 1.3: Densities of some substances. For gases, these are given at a
temperature of 0 °C and a pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa.

An object that is less dense than water will float. Ice is less dense than water
which explains why icebergs float in the sea, rather than sinking to the bottom.
Only about one tenth of an iceberg is above the water surface. If any part of an
object is above the water surface, then it is less dense than water.
Many materials have a range of densities. Some types of wood, for example, are
less dense than water and will float. Other types of wood (such as mahogany) are
more dense and will sink. The density depends on the nature of the wood (its
composition).
Gold is denser than silver. Pure gold is a soft metal, so jewellers add silver to
make it harder. The amount of silver added can be judged by measuring the
density.
It is useful to remember that the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, 1.0 kg/dm3 or
1.0 g/cm3.

Calculating density
To calculate the density of a material, we need to know the mass and volume of
a sample of the material.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1

A sample of ethanol has a volume of 240 cm3. Its mass is found to be 190.0 g.
What is the density of ethanol?
Step 1: Write down what you know and what you want to know.
mass m = 190.0 g
volume V = 240 cm3
density ρ = ?
Step 2: Write down the equation for density, substitute values and
calculate ρ.
ρ = mv
190 g
=
240 cm3
= 0. 79 g/ cm3
Answer
Density of ethanol = 0.79 g/cm3

Measuring density
The easiest way to determine the density of a substance is to find the mass and
volume of a sample of the substance.
For a solid with a regular shape, find its volume by measurement (see Section
1.1). Find its mass using a balance. Then calculate the density.

Questions
3 A brick is shown in Figure 1.9. It has a mass of 2.8 kg.

Figure 1.9: A brick labelled with its dimensions.

a Give the dimensions of the brick in metres.

b Calculate the volume of the brick.
c Calculate the density of the brick.
4 A box full of 35 matches has a mass of 6.77 g. The box itself has a mass of
3.37 g.
a What is the mass of one match in grams?
b What is the volume (in cm3) of each match. A match has dimensions
of 42 mm × 2.3 mm × 2.3 mm?
c What is the density of the matches?
d How do you know if these matches will float?
5 The Earth has a mass of 6 × 1024 kg and a radius of about 6400 km. What
is the density of the Earth (in kg/m3)? The volume of a sphere is given by
the equation V = 4 πr3 , where r is the radius.
3
6 40 drawing pins (thumb tacks) like those shown in Figure 1.10 have a
mass of 17.55 g. What is the volume (in mm3) of one pin when they are
made of metal with a density of 8.7 g/cm3?

Figure 1.10: A pair of drawing pins (thumb tacks).

7 A young girl from the Kayan people in northern Thailand wears a neck
ring made of brass (Figure 1.11). It looks as if there are 21 individual rings
but the ring is actually one continuous length of brass fashioned (bent) into
a coil. The height of the brass coil is 12 cm and its average circumference
is 40 cm. Neck rings are usually only removed to be replaced with a
bigger one as the girl grows. However, we can estimate the mass of this
neck ring without removing it.
Figure 1.11: A Kayan girl wearing a neck ring.

a What looks like 21 individual rings around the girl’s neck is actually
21 turns of a coil of brass. Each turn has a circumference of 40 cm.
Calculate (in cm) the total length of brass used to make the girl’s neck
ring.
b The coil has a height of 12 cm and the coil has 21 turns. Calculate the
radius of the brass in cm.
c If the brass coil is unwound from the girl’s neck and straightened out,
it would be a long, thin, cylinder. Calculate the volume of this cylinder
in cm3. The volume of a cylinder is given by the equation V = πr2h,
where
r = radius and h = height.
d Calculate the mass of brass used to make the neck ring and express
 your answer in kg. The density of brass = 8.73 g/cm3.

Finding the density of a liquid

Figure 1.12 shows one way to find the density of a liquid. Place a measuring
cylinder on a balance. Set the balance to zero. Now pour liquid into the cylinder.
Read the volume from the scale on the cylinder. The balance shows the mass.

Figure 1.12: Measuring the mass of a liquid.

When liquids with different densities are poured into the same container, they
will arrange themselves so that the liquid with the lowest density will be at the
top and the ones with the highest density will be at the bottom. This is because
the denser liquids displace the less dense liquids. This is easier to see when each
liquid is given a different colour. In Figure 1.13, the green liquid is less dense
than the red liquid and so on.
Figure 1.13: Liquid density towers.

When a distinct layer forms in a mixed solution, the liquids are said to be
immiscible, which means they do not mix. This is why oil floats on water.
However, not all liquids stay separated so you would be disappointed if you tried
this at home with squash and water, for example. When liquids mix, it is usually
because one liquid dissolves in the other. For example, orange squash is a
concentrated syrup that is diluted by dissolving it in water.
Apart from making colourful liquid density towers, do variations in the density
of liquids have practical consequence? In Chapter 11, you will learn about
convection currents in fluids (liquids and gases), which are driven by differences
in density. These convection currents include the thermohaline circulation in the
oceans. Colder and saltier water sinks, displacing (pushing up) warmer and less
salty water.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Finding the density of a regularly shaped solid
In pairs, create a worksheet on the computer for finding the density of a
regularly shaped solid object (for example, a rectangular block) using a
ruler and a mass balance. Your worksheet should include:
• a method for measuring the mass and working out the volume
• the equation for calculating density
• a table to record the data.
You could include an optional task to work out the density of a liquid.
After your allotted time, another pair is going to test a copy of your
worksheet (perhaps by doing the experiment). They are going to add any
steps that are missing or make suggestions to make your worksheet clearer.
When you get your worksheet returned, edit and save a new version of it.
Finding the density of an irregularly shaped solid
Before you start, make a copy of your previous worksheet and save it under
a new name. Some of what you included in the previous worksheet can be
kept and some will need to be edited.
In pairs, create a worksheet for finding the density of an irregularly shaped
solid object using a mass balance, a measuring cylinder, some thread, a pair
of scissors and a eureka can (if you have access to one). Your method
explaining how to measure the mass and how to calculate the density
should be the same. However, you should:
• explain how to measure volume by displacement
• say something about choosing a suitably sized measuring cylinder
• change your previous table
You could include an optional task to work out the density of an irregularly
shaped solid object that is less dense than water. Finding its mass and
calculating the density is straightforward. The challenging part is
explaining how to work out the volume of an object that floats.
Design a flowchart or decision-tree (optional)
Design a flowchart or decision-tree for use by anyone who wants to work
out the density of any liquid or any solid object. Ensure that your flowchart
includes enough information so that someone could take the measurements.
Ask your partner or someone else who has completed the first two parts to
check and correct your flowchart.
REFLECTION
Write down one thing that you did really well in this activity.
Write down one thing that you will try to do better next time. How will you
do this?
1.3 Measuring time
The athletics coach in Figure 1.14 is using his stopwatch to time a sprinter. For a
sprinter, a fraction of a second (perhaps just 0.01 s) can make all the difference
between winning and coming second or third. It is different in a marathon, where
the race lasts for more than two hours and the runners are timed to the nearest
second.

Figure 1.14: An athletics coach uses a stopwatch to time a hurdler, who can then
learn whether she has improved.

ACTIVITY 1.2

How dense can you be?

In groups of three, write a method showing how you could work out your
own density, or that of a friend or of a younger sibling. Alternatively, plan
out your strategy and be prepared to share it with the class. There are at
least two methods: a dry method and a wet method. Discuss one or both of
them.
You will need to include:
 • a method that is detailed enough for someone to follow (this should
include advice about how a measurement should be taken)
• any calculations
• possible sources of uncertainty in the measurements
• what you expect your answer to be.
If you actually carried out the experiment, comment on how close your
measurement was to what you expected.

In the laboratory, you might need to record the temperature of a container of

water every minute, or find out how long an electric current is flowing. For
measurements like these, stopclocks and stopwatches can be used. You may
come across two types of timing device.
An analogue clock (Figure 1.15) is like a traditional clock whose hands move
round the clock’s face. You find the time by looking at where the hands are
pointing on the scale. It can be used to measure time intervals to no better than
the nearest second.

Figure 1.15: An analogue clock.

A digital clock (Figure 1.16) or stopwatch is one that gives a direct reading of
the time in numerals. For example, a digital clock might show a time of 9.58 s. A
digital clock records time to a precision of at least one hundredth of a second.
You would never see an analogue watch recording times in the Olympic Games.

Figure 1.16: A digital clock started when the gun fired and stopped 9.58 s later
when Usain Bolt crossed the finishing line to win the 100 m at the 2009 World
Championships in world record time.

When studying motion, you may need to measure the time taken for a rapidly
moving object to move between two points. In this case, you might use a device
called a light gate connected to an electronic timer. This is similar to the way in
which runners are timed in major athletics events. An electronic timer starts
when the marshal’s gun is fired, and stops as the runner crosses the finishing
line.
You will learn more about how to use electronic timing instruments in Chapter
2.

Measuring short intervals of time

Figure 1.17 shows a typical lab pendulum. A mass, called a plumb bob, hangs
on the end of a string. The string is clamped tightly at the top between two
wooden jaws. If you pull the bob gently to one side and release it, the pendulum
will swing from side to side.

Figure 1.17: A simple pendulum.

The time for one oscillation of a pendulum (when it swings from left to right
and back again) is called its period. A single period is usually too short a time to
measure accurately. However, because a pendulum swings at a steady rate, you
can use a stopwatch to measure the time for a large number of oscillations
(perhaps 20 or 50), and calculate the average time per oscillation.
Any inaccuracy in the time at which the stopwatch is started and stopped will be
much less significant if you measure the total time for a large number of
oscillations.
Questions
8 High-speed video can record sporting events at a frame rate of 60 frames
per second (frame/s).
a What is the time interval between one frame and the next?
b If we can see 24 frame/s as continuous motion, by what factor can the
action recorded at 60 frame/s be slowed down and still look
continuous?
9 A student was investigating how the period of a pendulum varied with the
length of the string and obtained the results in Table 1.4.

Time for 20 oscillations /

Length of string / m Time for 1 oscillation / s
s
0.00 0.0
0.20 18.1
0.40 25.1
0.60 28.3
0.80 39.4
1.00 40.5
1.20 44.4
1.40 47.9

Table 1.4

a Why did the student record the time for 20 swings?

b Make a copy of Table 1.4 and, for each length of the pendulum,
calculate the time for one oscillation and record the value in the third
column of the table.
c Plot a graph of the period of the pendulum against its length (that is,
plot the length of the pendulum on the x -axis).
d Use the graph to work out the length of the pendulum when the period
is 2 seconds. This is the length of pendulum used in a grandfather
clock.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Using a pendulum as a clock
In 1656 the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens invented a clock based on a
swinging pendulum. Clocks like these were the most precise in the world
until the 1930s. One oscillation of a pendulum is defined as the time it takes
for a plumb bob at the bottom of the string to return to its original position
(Figure 1.18).

Figure 1.18: One oscillation is when the plumb bob swings one way and
then the other and returns back to its original position.

You need to develop a worksheet so that students can plot a graph of how
the period of oscillation of a pendulum varies with the length of the string.
They then need to use the graph to find the length the pendulum needs to be
to give a period of one second (useful for a clock). Your worksheet needs
to:
• define what an oscillation means (so that a student knows when to
start and stop the stopwatch)
• explain why we take the time for 10 or 20 oscillations when we only
need the time for one oscillation
• provide a labelled diagram of the assembled apparatus (not just a list
of equipment) so that students know how to put the equipment
together
• a method (step-by-step instructions).
Swap copies of your worksheet with a classmate. Write down suggestions
for any improvements on the worksheet you receive before returning it to
its owner. Note down any improvements if you have a class discussion.

PROJECT
In groups of three or four, produce a podcast (no more than five minutes
long) on one of the following options.
Option 1: Can we build on what we have learned about density?
This is opportunity to revise what you have learned about density and then
consolidate that knowledge and understanding by applying it to one of the
two examples below.
• You must explain how density is calculated, including the equation.
• You should describe how to measure the mass and volume of both
regular and irregular shaped objects.
• You could describe how to work out the density of an object that can
float.
1 RSS Titanic
It was claimed that the RSS Titanic was unsinkable. However the ship sank
in 1912 on its first voyage.
• You must explain why a ship can float despite being made of material
that is denser than water.
• You should explain why a ship can sink, in terms of changes in
density.
• Do some research to find out about bulkheads in ships: what are they
and what are they for? Why did the RSS Titanic sink despite being
fitted with bulkheads?
2 Submarines and scuba divers
You could describe one phenomenon that depends on changes or
differences in density. You could think of your own or select one of these:
• Explain how a submarine or scuba diver moves up and down in the
water column (or perhaps explain how a Cartesian diver demonstration
works).
• Explain how differences in fluid density can lead to convection
(something you will meet in Chapter 11). You might want to go on to
discuss how this relates to ocean currents or wind.
Option 2: What was the solution to the longitude problem?
A clock based on a pendulum is impractical on the moving deck of a
(sailing) ship but knowing the time is important for navigation as this
provides your longitude on a spinning Earth. Lines of longitude are the
vertical lines on a map. When you move east or west you are changing your
longitude; move far enough and you change time zone.
• You must start with a short description of the longitude problem.
• You could describe the various suggested solutions to the longitude
problem.
• You could describe the final solution to the longitude problem. For
this, you would need to look up John Harrison and his marine
chronometer.
Option 3: How did the Ancient Egyptians build their pyramids so
accurately?
The pyramids are an incredible feat of engineering, even by today’s
standards. Using very basic tools, the Egyptians' pyramids are perfectly
symmetrical.
• You could start by introducing the dimensions of the Giza pyramid
and the number of blocks required to build it.
• You could explain how the Egyptians managed to get the sides of their
pyramids lined up with true north (without a compass) and how they
got the base of them absolutely level (flat) without a (spirit) level.
Option 4: How did Eratosthenes work out the circumference of the
Earth?
Eratosthenes was a brilliant scientist. He was told that, at the same time
every year (12 noon on 21 June), vertical columns in Syene (present day
Aswan) cast no shadows while columns where he lived in Alexandria cast
shadows. He used this to work out that the Earth is round. Eratosthenes
may have hired a man to measure out the distance between Alexandria and
Syene.
• You could start with a short biography of Eratosthenes.
• You should explain why the observation with the shadows shows that
the Earth is a sphere. You might want to include a diagram like Figure
1.2.
• You should try and show how the man hired by Eratosthenes could
have worked out his stride-length (the distance of each step) and kept
count of his strides (steps). Think about his possible journey: did he
follow a straight line; were there any hills in the way? Could this have
introduced errors in measuring the distance between Alexandria and
Syene?
• Finally, you could show how Eratosthenes did the calculation.
Option 5: How did Archimedes really work out that the goldsmith had
replaced some of the gold in Hiero’s crown with silver?
Archimedes was probably the most brilliant scientist of his era. He is
supposed to have solved the problem of how to work out the density of the
crown while having a bath. Legend has it that he then ran into the streets
shouting ‘eureka’ (I’ve solved it).
• You could start with a short biography of Archimedes.
• You could then describe the usual explanation of how he worked out
that some gold had been stolen. Silver is less dense than gold so the
same mass of silver has a bigger volume and will displace a bigger
volume of water. However, it would be difficult to measure the
difference in volume, especially since bubbles of air could cling to the
submerged crown and there could be other sources of error.
• You could describe a better method, which uses a mass balance. You
would need to explain why, when the masses are equal, the balance
tips towards the denser mass when lowered into water.
• Gold needs some silver impurity or it would be too soft and would be
easy to bend out of shape. Perhaps the goldsmith was falsely accused?
Perhaps this idea could form part of a piece of creative writing (some
prose or a play) but be sure to include the physics.

REFLECTION
• For your project, write down some thoughts about what you feel went
well and areas where you could improve.
• Give yourself a score out of ten for how much you know and
understand the physics you included. If you scored ten, write down
how you could have produced a more ambitious project. If you scored
less, do you need to thoroughly review the material or are you making
careless errors? Write down what concrete steps you need to take to
improve for next time.
• Give yourself a score out of ten for the quality of your presentation.
Write down what you thought was good about the other presentations
or any effective presentation ideas that you might use next time you
present.
SUMMARY

Length can be measured using a ruler.

The period of one oscillation can be measured by measuring the time for
20 oscillations and then dividing the time by 20.
The volume of a cube or cuboid can be found by measuring the length of
the three sides and multiplying the measurements together.
The volume of a liquid can be measured using a measuring cylinder where
the bottom of the meniscus appears on the scale when looked at
horizontally.
All objects that sink in water displace their own volume of water.
The volume of an irregularly shaped object can be found from the change
in the height of liquid in a measuring cylinder when it is immersed in the
liquid.
m
Density is the ratio of mass to volume for a substance: ρ = V
.
The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 or 1.0 g/cm3.
Anything less dense than water will float in water and anything denser
than water will sink in water.
Ice floats because it is less dense than water.
One liquid will float on top of another liquid if it is less dense.
Time can be measured using a clock or watch.
An analogue clock has hands and can only measure time to the nearest
second.
A digital clock displays numbers and records time to a precision of at least
one hundredth of a second.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
Use this table to answer questions 1 and 2.
Metal Density / g/cm3
gold 19.30
silver 10.49
lead 11.34

1 Three metal cubes have the same volume but are made of
different metals. Each one is lowered into a beaker of water.
Use the data in the table to decide which one will cause the
biggest rise in water level.
[1]
A gold
B silver
C lead
D all will cause the same rise in water level

2 Three metal cubes have the same mass but are made of
different metals. Each one is lowered into a beaker of water.
Use the data in the table to decide which one will cause the
biggest rise in water level.
[1]
A gold
B silver
C lead
D all will cause the same rise in water level

3 Astronauts land on another planet and measure the density of

the atmosphere on the planet surface. They measure the mass
of a 500 cm3 conical flask plus stopper as 457.23 g. After
removing the air, the mass is 456.43 g (1 m3 = 1000 litres).
What is the best estimate of the density of the air? [1]
 A 0.000 001 6 kg/m3
B 0.0016 kg/m3
C 0.16 kg/m3
D 1.6 kg/m3

4 The graph shows the mass and volume of several different

objects.

Which two objects have the same density? [1]

A 2 and 3
B 1 and 4
C 2 and 4
D 3 and 4
5 A student measures the circumference of a circular copper pipe.
He wraps a length of string four times around the pipe and marks it
with ink, as shown in the photograph.
 a The student unwraps the string and holds it against a ruler with a
centimetre scale.
The photograph shows the first two ink marks on the string.

i Use the photograph to estimate the circumference of

the pipe. [1]
ii The student finds that the total length of string for 4
turns is 354 mm. Calculate the average (mean)
circumference of the pipe using this value. [1]
[Total: 2]

6 Suggest how you would work out the thickness of a single

sheet of paper if the only measuring device available was a
ruler and its smallest division was 1 mm. [1]
7 What is the mass of a microscope slide that has dimensions of
75 mm × 26 mm × 1 mm and has a density of 2.24 g/cm3?
[2]
8 Four different liquids are poured into a 100 cm3 measuring cylinder
that is 10 cm tall. Each liquid has a different density and each has a
different colour.

a Calculate the missing values in the table. [4]

Volume / Density /
Liquid Mass / g
cm3 g/cm3
clear ethanol i 20.00 0.79
red glycerin 20.00 ii 1.26
green olive oil 25.90 28.80 iii
blue turpentine 30.00 35.30 iv

b Copy the diagram below. Using the data from the table
above, write down the colour of the liquid you would
expect to find in each layer and how thick the layer would
be. [2]

Thickness of layer /
Colour of layer
cm

9 Metals are denser than water. Explain why a metal ship can
float. [1]
10 Suggest how you could work out the density of a drawing pin.
[3]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the
different topics. This will help you to see any gaps in your knowledge and
help you to learn more effectively.
Needs Confident
See Almost
I can more to move
Topic... there
work on
Measure length, volume and time. 1.1, 1.3
Calculate the volume of a cube or
cuboid from measurements using a 1.1
ruler.
Determine the volume of an
1.1
irregularly shaped object.
Measure the size of tiny objects (for
example, the thickness of a sheet of 1.1
paper, the volume of a drawing pin).
Calculate density. 1.2
Predict whether an object will float or
1.2
sink in water based on its density.
Describe an experiment to find the
1.2
density of a liquid.
Predict whether a liquid will float on
top of another liquid if their densities 1.2
are known and they cannot mix.
Describe an experiment to find the
1.2
density of a cube or cuboid.
Describe an experiment to find the
density of an irregularly shaped 1.2
object.
Describe the differences between
analogue and digital watches or 1.3
clocks.