Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is the science of energy in which the storage, the

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transformation and the transfer of energy are studied. Or, Thermodynamics is the
Thermodynamics

science of energy dealing various forms of energy. Or, The mist of science clarifying the
relationship of energy is called Thermodynamics[12].

Thermal Engineering: The branch of engineering which applies thermodynamics is

Thermal Engineering

called thermal engineering. Or The field of engineering science which deals with the
application of thermodynamics and its laws to work producing and work absorbing
devices, in order to understand their functions and improve their performance is known
as Thermal Engineering [3].
M. A. Islam

Thermodynamics includes all aspects of energy and energy transformations, including

power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter.
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 Thermodynamic equilibrium: A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium if it
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satisfies mechanical, thermal, and chemical equilibrium. Or, Any thermodynamic

system satisfying thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium is called
Thermodynamics

thermodynamic equilibrium.
Classification of Thermodynamic equilibrium
1) Mechanical equilibrium: Any system having no unbalanced force inside the
system is said to have Mechanical equilibrium
Thermal Engineering

2) Thermal equilibrium: Any system having no temperature difference among its

constituents is said to have Thermal equilibrium

3) Chemical equilibrium : Any system having no chemical reaction occurring

among its constituents is said to have Chemical equilibrium
M. A. Islam
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 Classification of Thermodynamics
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Thermodynamics can be classified as follows

Thermodynamics

I. Classical Thermodynamics (Macroscopic Thermodynamics)

II.Statistical Thermodynamics (Microscopic Thermodynamics)

III.Quantum thermodynamics (Quantum Mechanics)

1) Macroscopic Thermodynamics or Classical Thermodynamics: The branch of

Thermal Engineering

thermodynamics that does not consider the molecular level for analysis. (A
macroscopic consideration addresses the appropriate observable averages of the
microscopic phenomena)

2) Microscopic Thermodynamics or Statistical Thermodynamics: The branch of

thermodynamics that considers the molecular level for analysis. (A microscopic
M. A. Islam

viewpoint is used to understand a process or system by considering the particle

nature of matter)
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Page # 3
 System: The region in space containing a quantity of matter whose behavior is being
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investigated. Or, A thermodynamic system is a definite quantity of matter contained

within some closed surface.
Thermodynamics

Surrounding: All matter and space external to a system is collectively called its
surroundings. Or, Everything external to the system which is affected by changes
occurring to the system.
Boundary: The line that separates the system from the surroundings.
Thermal Engineering

Universe: The system and the surroundings together are called a universe

Boundary

System
M. A. Islam

Surroundings

Universe
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 Classification of System
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Among many ways System is classified mainly as follows

Thermodynamics

1) Open system: A system that interacts with the surroundings by transferring

energy along with materials transfer. Or, A system where mass and energy
transfer occurs to the surroundings.

2) Closed system: A system that interacts with the surroundings by transferring

Thermal Engineering

energy while no transfer of materials occurs. Or, A system where energy transfer
occurs but no mass transfer incurs to the surroundings.

3) Isolated system: A system that does not transfer energy and materials with the
surroundings. Or, A system where no mass and energy transfer occurs to the
surroundings.
M. A. Islam
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 State: The state or condition of a system is specified by the values of its properties. Or,
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The condition described by properties at a particular instant.

Thermodynamics

Change of State: Any operation in which one or more of the properties of a system
changes.
Path: The path of the process is the series of states through which the system passes
during the process. Or, The succession of states during a change of state.
Thermodynamic cycle or Cycle: A thermodynamic cycle is a series of state changes
Thermal Engineering

such that the final state is identical with the initial state.

Control Volume: When the attention is focused on a volume into which or from which a
substance flows, the volume is called control volume. Example: A pump or Turbine.
Control Surface: The surface that completely surrounds the control volume is called
M. A. Islam

the control surface.

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 Property: The quantity that serves to delineate or express the system. Or, The quantity
that describes the system.
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Classification of Properties
Thermodynamics

One way
1) Intensive Properties: The property that doesn’t depend on mass or size or volume
2) Extensive Properties: The property that depends on mass or size or Volume
Specific extensive properties: The extensive property per unit mass
Thermal Engineering

Specific extensive properties = Intensive Properties

Second Way
1. Macroscopic Properties: The property that does not considers at the molecular level
2. Microscopic Properties: The property that considers at the molecular level
Third Way
M. A. Islam

1. Physical Properties: The property that is measurable without changing its

composition. Example- Mass, Volume
2. Chemical Properties: The property that is measured due to changing its composition
(Due to chemical composition) Example- Freezing
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 Practice Problem
❖ The mass of air in a room 3×5×20 m3 is known to be 350 kg. Find the values of ρ,
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νs, w.
Soln: Given that, V = 3×5×20 m3, m = 350 kg
Thermodynamics

𝑚 350
Density, ρ = = = 1.167 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜈 3×5×20

350
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑤 = × 9.8 = 11.437 𝑁/𝑚3
3×5×20

Specific volume, νs = 1Τ𝜌 = 0.8569 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔

Thermal Engineering

❖ Identify which of the following are extensive properties or intensive properties.

1) A 10 m3 Volume
2) 30 J of KE
3) A pressure of 90 Kpa
M. A. Islam

4) A stress of 100 Kpa

5) A mass of 75 Kg
6) A Velocity of 96 m/s
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Convert all extensive properties to intensive properties assuming m=75 Kg.

 Process: A change of a system from one state to another is called a process. Or, The path
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of successive equilibrium states through which the system passes is called process.
Thermodynamics

Classification of Process
One way
1) Flow process: The process occurring in the open system. Or, The process occurring
in the open system which permit the transfer of mass across their boundaries.
Thermal Engineering

2) Non-Flow process: The flow occurring the closed system. Or, The process occurring
in the closed system which does not permit the transfer of mass across their
boundaries.
Second way
1. Reversible Process: A reversible process is defined as a process which can be
M. A. Islam

reversed and doing so leaves no change in both the system and the surroundings.
2. Irreversible process: An irreversible process is defined as a process which cannot be
reversed and doing so leaves no change in both the system and the surroundings.
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 Conditions or Parameters of reversibility
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1) Quasi equilibrium process

2) No friction involved
Thermodynamics

3) Infinitesimal temperature difference

4) Unrestrained expansion does not occur
5) Must have diathermic wall
Classification of Flow Process
Thermal Engineering

1) Steady Flow Process: The flow process where no changes occur with time
2) Unsteady Flow Process: State: The flow process where changes occur with time
Conditions or Parameters of Steady flow process
1) The mass flow rate is constant ( Mass flow inlet = Mass flow outlet)
2) The heat flow rate is constant
M. A. Islam

3) The work flow rate is constant

4) The state of working substances is same
5) The chemical composition is constant
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 Non flow process
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1) Reversible non flow processes

Thermodynamics

2) Irreversible non flow processes

Reversible non flow processes

a) The constant pressure process ( Isobaric Process)
b) The constant volume process ( Isochoric Process)
Thermal Engineering

c) The constant temperature process ( Isothermal Process)

d) The Adiabatic process ( Isentropic Process)
e) Hyperbolic process
f) Polytropic process
M. A. Islam
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 a) The constant pressure process ( Isobaric Process)
𝑽𝟐
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𝑾𝟏−𝟐 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝑷 (𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 )

𝑽𝟏
Thermodynamics

b) The constant volume process ( Isochoric Process) dV = 0

𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝟏−𝟐 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝟎
𝑽𝟏

c) The constant temperature process ( Isothermal Process) T = Constant

𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝟏−𝟐 = ‫𝑽𝒅𝑷 𝑽׬‬ = 𝑪 𝒍𝒏 = 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒍𝒏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝒍𝒏
Thermal Engineering

𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏

d) The Adiabatic process ( Isentropic Process) 𝑷𝑽γ = 𝑪

𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝟏−𝟐 =
γ −𝟏
e) Hyperbolic process PV = C
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑪
M. A. Islam

𝑾𝟏−𝟐 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽
f) Polytropic process 𝑷𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝟏−𝟐 =
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𝒏 −𝟏
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Reversible non p-v-T relation Work done Change of Heat supplied Change in
Thermodynamics

flow process Internal energy enthalpy

V = Constant 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐 0 𝑚 𝑐𝑣 (𝑻𝟐 - 𝑻𝟏 ) 𝑚 𝑐𝑣 (𝑻𝟐 - 𝑻𝟏 ) 𝑚 𝑐𝑝 (𝑻𝟐 - 𝑻𝟏 )

𝑻𝟏
=
𝑻𝟐
(GL)

P=C 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 p (𝒗𝟐 - 𝒗𝟏 ) 𝑚 𝑐𝑣 (𝑻𝟐 - 𝑻𝟏 ) 𝑚 𝑐𝑝 (𝑻𝟐 - 𝑻𝟏 ) 𝑚 𝑐𝑝 (𝑻𝟐 - 𝑻𝟏 )

𝑻𝟏
=
𝑻𝟐
(CL)
Thermal Engineering

Hyperbolic/ 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑉2 0 𝑉2 0
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛
𝑉1
or 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 or
T=C (BL) 𝑉2 𝑉1
𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑉2
𝑉1 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝑉1

𝛾 𝛾 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Adiabatic/ 𝑷𝟏 𝑉1 =𝑷𝟐 𝑉2 𝑚 𝑐𝑣 (𝑻𝟐 - 𝑻𝟏 ) 0 𝑚 𝑐𝑝 (𝑻𝟐 - 𝑻𝟏 )
𝑷𝑽𝜸 = 𝑪 𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝜸−𝟏 𝜸 −𝟏
=
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏
𝜸−𝟏
M. A. Islam

𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝜸
=
𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐
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 Exercises
1) The initial volume of 0.18 Kg of a certain gas was 0.15 m3 at a temperature of 15 oC
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and a pressure of 1 bar. After adiabatic compression to 0.056 m3, the pressure was
Thermodynamics

found to be 4 bar. Find:

1) Gas constants
2) Molecular mass of the gas
3) Ratio of specific heats
4) Two specific heats (One at constant pressure and the other at constant volume)
Thermal Engineering

5) Change of internal energy

2) A quantity of gas has a volume of 0.14 m3, pressure 1.5 bar and a temperature 100 oC.
If the gas is compressed at a constant pressure, until its volume becomes of 0.112 m3,
determine :
1) The temperature at the end of compression
M. A. Islam

2) Work done in compressing the gas

3) Decrease in internal energy

4) Heat given out by gas

Page # 14
 Exercises
3) A quantity of air has a volume of 0.4 m3 at a pressure of 5 bar and a temperature of
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80 oC. It is expanded in a cylinder at a constant temperature to a pressure of 1 bar.

Determine the amount of work done by the air during expansion.
Thermodynamics

4) A certain gas occupies a space of 0.3 m3 at a pressure of 2 bar and a temperature of

77 oC. It is heated at a constant volume until the pressure is 7 bar. Determine –
i) The temperature at the end of the process
ii) Mass of the gas
Thermal Engineering

iii)Change in internal energy

iv)Change in enthalpy during the process
5) 0.1 m3 of air at a pressure of 1.5 bar is expanded isothermally to 0.5 m3. Calculate the
final pressure and heat supplied during the process.
6) A volume of 0.5 m3 of gas at a pressure of 10 bar and 200 oC is expanded in a cylinder
M. A. Islam

to 1.2 m3. Calculate the amount of work done by the gas and the increase in internal
energy.
7) One litre of H2 at 0 oC is suddenly compressed to ½ of its volume. Find the change in
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temperature of the gas, if the ratio of two specific heats for H2 is 1.4.
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
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A temperature scale exists for all substances in nature and provides an absolute
measure of their tendencies to exchange heat.
Thermodynamics

Or, If two systems are in equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems are in
equilibrium with each other [8]

A B
Thermal Engineering

Energy can be stored as any or combination of the following's forms

➢ Internal energy (associated with temperature)
➢ Potential energy (due to elevation)
➢ Kinetic energy (due to motion)
M. A. Islam

➢ Chemical energy (due to chemical changes)

Energy can be transformed mutually and transferred across the boundaries either
as work or heat.
Page # 16
 M. A. Islam would like to thank the following for preparing the lecture materials and have
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no intention to plagiarize other than teaching students and use as reference materials.
Sl Books Authors
Thermodynamics

1 Engineering Thermodynamics Gordon Rogers & Yon Mayhew

2 Engineering Thermodynamics P. K. Nag
3 Thermal Engineering R. S. Khurmi
4 Thermodynamics M. C. Potter & C. W. Somerton
Thermal Engineering

5 Engineering Thermodynamics J. B. Jones & R. E. Dugan

6 Engineering Thermodynamics Yunus A. Cengel& Michael A. Boles
7 Engineering Thermodynamics G. J. Van Wylen, R.. E. Sonntag & C. Brognakke
8 Physical Chemistry P. Atkins & J. Paula
9 Principles of Chemistry Mercer
10 Chemical Thermodynamics Smith
M. A. Islam

11 Thermal Physics R. F. Sekara

12 Thermodynamics for Materials
R. T. Hoff
Science
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