Rice 2000
Rice 2000
This research examined differences between types of perfectionists and whether perfectionism
related to attachment, academic integration, and depression. University students completed
the same attachment and perfectionism measures in two studies. In the 2nd study, measures of
academic integration and depression were also used. Replicated cluster analyses revealed 3
groups of perfectionists: adaptive, maladaptive, and nonperfectionists. Attachment predicted
type of perfectionist, with adaptive perfectionists reporting more secure attachments than did
maladaptive perfectionists. Adaptive perfectionists also had better academic integration than
maladaptive perfectionists. Maladaptive perfectionists, on average, reported depression in the
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clinically significant range. Results revealed academic and emotional benefits of adaptive
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perfectionism, contrasted with the adverse emotional effects and no academic advantages of
maladaptive perfectionism.
Hamachek (1978) described two kinds of perfectionism. ism (Blatt, 1995; Pacht, 1984). Concerns about maladaptive
Normal or adaptive perfectionism involves adherence to perfectionism are well deserved. Maladaptive perfectionism
high self-standards, order, and organization but not at the has been correlated with numerous psychological problems
expense of self-esteem. Such perfectionists are free to be such as depression (Hewitt, Flett, & Ediger, 3996), anxiety
less precise and to experience positive feelings when a task (Alden, Bieling, & Wallace, 1994), and eating disorders
is completed. Neurotic or maladaptive perfectionism is (Cash & Szymanski, 1995; Minarik & Ahrens, 1996).
distinguished by high standards that never seem met or However, adaptive perfectionism, though less examined in
achievable. Completed projects are not enjoyed, and there is the literature, has been found to correlate positively with
considerable anxiety about imperfections. A number of efficacy (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990) and
independent programs of research with various measures of positive, but not negative, affect (Frost et al., 1993). Frost et
perfectionism have tended to support a two-dimensional, al. (1990) reported negative correlations between dimen-
higher order factor structure for perfectionism (Frost, Heim- sions of adaptive perfectionism and the frequency of procras-
berg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Rice, Ashby, & tination. Moreover, Rice et al. (1998) found a significant
Slaney, 1998; Slaney, Ashby, & Trippi, 1995; Terry-Short, though modest positive correlation between adaptive and
Owens, Slade, & Dewey, 1995). maladaptive perfectionism, although these constructs related
A multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism in different ways with self-esteem and depression. Some
with adaptive and maladaptive aspects could appeal to studies have used empirical or conceptual classifications of
counseling psychology's historical emphasis on adjustment, perfectionists and nonperfectionists, thus permitting addi-
normal development, and individual strengths and re- tional analyses of group similarities and differences. For
sources. Unfortunately, the literature on perfectionism has example, Parker (1997) conducted a cluster-analytic study
tended to emphasize the adverse consequences or correlates of academically talented sixth graders and found that
of maladaptive perfectionism but has discounted or down- "dysfunctional" perfectionists tended to be anxious and
played the psychological advantages of adaptive perfection- disagreeable, whereas "healthy" perfectionists tended to be
conscientious, socially at ease, and achievement oriented (p.
555). Both groups of perfectionists had moderate to high
Kenneth G. Rice and Saied Ali Mirzadeh, Department of personal standards that, along with other characteristics,
Counseling, Educational Psychology, and Special Education, Michi- distinguished them from nonperfectionists. Thus, it may be
gan State University. the case that the dimensions of perfectionism are selective in
Preliminary results from this research were presented at the their prediction of certain psychological outcomes (e.g.,
105th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Associa- adaptive perfectionism may predict academic achievement
tion, Chicago, August 1997. This research was supported by a grant but not emotional adjustment). One purpose of the present
from the Spencer Foundation. We gratefully acknowledge the study was to examine such possibilities. Another purpose
assistance of Amanda Baden, Anna Crombach, Dave Derr, and
Ryan Smith in helping with several phases of the studies. We also was to explore empirically some presumed relational precur-
express appreciation to Jeffrey Ashby, Daniel Lapsley, and Robert sors of perfectionism.
Slaney for reading drafts of the article and providing us with
feedback. Several authors have suggested that perfectionism emerges
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to from differences in the quality of parent-child interactions
Kenneth G. Rice, Department of Counseling, Educational Psychol- (Hamachek, 1978; Sorotzkin, 1998). Parents of perfection-
ogy, and Special Education, 440 Erickson Hall, Michigan State ists have been characterized as harsh and critical, with
University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1034. Electronic mail unreasonably high standards for children to meet. According
may be sent to kgrl @ msu.edu. to Hamachek (1978), neurotic or maladaptive perfectionism
238
PERFECTIONISM, ATTACHMENT, AND ADJUSTMENT 239
develops from children's need for acceptance from parents tion strategy seems to be 'Mom will stay with me if I don't
who hold high standards of accomplishment but are never raise any fuss' " (p. 289). Likewise, Harter (1998) summa-
satisfied with their children's striving toward these standards rized research in which insecurely attached children could
or are inconsistent with their approval. Adaptive or normal be described as having parents who were either underattuned
perfectionism presumably results from observing a parent (insensitive) or overattuned to their children's emotional
experiencing enjoyment and satisfaction from flexible adher- needs. Overattuned parents were described as intrusively
ence to high standards or from observing disorganized emphasizing what the child should feel as opposed to
parents. Though not specifically stated as such by Hama- understanding how the child does feel (emphasis in original;
chek, qualities of attachment to parents or parent-figures see also Stern, 1985). Thus, insecurely attached children
may set the stage for the development of different kinds of might describe themselves as being "perfect" and idealize
perfectionism. Indeed, the descriptive literature on attach- the self and others in order to "mask feelings of unworthi-
ment bonds and attachment styles is strikingly similar to the ness" (Harter, 1998, p. 566). They are likely to develop
literature on perfectionism. According to Bowlby (1969, negative (or false) views of themselves as unworthy and
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
1988) and others (e.g., Ainsworth, 1989; Sroufe, 1979), an either negative views of others (as uncaring) or positive
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imposed expectations for the child (Barrow & Moore, 1983; mistakes with failure; Personal Standards (seven items) taps high
Hamachek, 1978). Indeed, Blatt (1995) concluded that standards, goals, and high personal expectations for performance.
"highly perfectionistic, self-critical individuals . . . struggle Parental Expectations (five items) measures the belief that parents
had high expectations and set high standards for the respondent.
to meet harsh judgmental parental standards and are identi-
Parental Criticism (four items) taps the belief that parents were
fied with these attitudes of their parents, attitudes that they overly critical. Doubts About Actions (four items) measures the
now direct toward themselves so that whatever they accom- degree to which respondents doubt their ability to complete tasks
plish is never fully sufficient" (p. 1012). Hence, insecure effectively. The Organization subscale (six items) measures the
parent-child attachment bonds are likely to be present importance one places on order and organization.
among maladaptive perfectionists, who, in turn, experience Research using the MPS has demonstrated that, despite some of
significant psychological maladjustment the subscales consisting of only a few items, reliability estimates
We hypothesized that adaptive perfectionists would evi- (Cronbach's coefficient alphas) have been adequate and have
dence secure attachment bonds with parents, whereas mal- ranged from .77 to .93 (Frost et al, 1990). Concurrent validity for
adaptive perfectionists would evidence insecure attach- the MPS has been demonstrated in that the measure relates in
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ments. We also considered the possibility of curvilinear expected directions with other measures of perfectionism such as
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associations between attachment and perfectionism to ad- Hewitt, Flett, Turnbull-Donovan, and Mikail's (1991) MPS and
Slaney et al.'s (1995) Almost Perfect Scale (Frost et al.. 1993; Rice
dress the issues of overattunement or underattunement in
et al., 1998). Criterion-related validity is evidenced by correlations
parent-child relationships described by Harter (1998). Thus, between MPS subscales and measures of psychological symptoms
it may be that too much (i.e., smothering) or too little (i.e., (e.g., Brief Symptom Inventory; Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1983)
insensitivity) of the qualities of secure attachment bonds and adjustments such as compulsiveness, self-esteem, procrastina-
may predict the different types of perfectionism. We ex- tion, and depression (Frost & Marten, 1990; Frost et al., 1990,
pected adaptive perfectionists would have high academic 1993). Of particular note for the purposes of this study has been the
integration and less depression, compared with maladaptive finding that Personal Standards and Organization correlated with
perfectionists who were expected to report emotional and positive affect but not negative affect and that factor analyses
academic difficulties. We examined these questions in two revealed these two subscales loaded onto an Adaptive Perfection-
separate studies to replicate and cross-validate our classifica- ism factor (labeled positive striving), whereas the remaining
tion procedure and our findings with regard to attachment. subscales appear to tap maladaptive perfectionism (labeled maladap-
tive evaluation concerns, Frost et al., 1993). Further evidence for
We also used a more diverse group of participants in the
the validity of the MPS is derived from a cluster analysis in which
second study to extend the generalizability of the results. three theoretically expected homogenous groups of perfectionists
were reliably identified as "healthy" perfectionists, "dysfunc-
Study 1 tional" perfectionists, and "nonperfectionists" (Parker, 1997).
Attachment. Attachment was assessed with the revised version
Method of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA; Armsden &
Greenberg, 1987), which measures the overall quality or security in
Participants the attachment bond with mother and with father. The revised IPPA
is called the Relationships Questionnaire (RQ) and contains two,
A total of 49 men and 129 women (A' ~ 179,1 with missing data 25-item, self-report subscales yielding separate scores for attach-
for gender) were recruited from elective undergraduate personal ment to mother and attachment to father (the original IPPA
adjustment courses at a large, public midwestem university. The contained 28 items measuring attachment to "parents" and did not
average age for this sample was 21.13 years (SD = 1.56). Ninety- specify mother or father). Participants are asked to consider their
four percent of the sample identified themselves as White, Euro- mother or father or the person who has acted most in the role of
pean American. Sixty-three percent indicated that their parents mother or father for them. (In the current study, 96% of the
were married and living together, 14% reported their parents had participants indicated that their responses on the RQ pertained to
divorced and not remarried, and 16% indicated one or both of their their relationship with their biological or adoptive mother, and 92%
parents had remarried. Fifty percent of the students indicated that responded by considering their relationship with their biological or
their home was less than 300 miles from campus. While attending adoptive father.) Participants respond to items along a 5-point
the university, the students tended Co live in sorority or fraternity Likert continuum ranging from 1 (almost true or always true) to 5
houses (44%) or off-campus dwellings (40%). Most of the partici- (almost never or never true). The IPPA and its revision, the RQ,
pants were seeking liberal arts degrees (58%). The frequencies of were designed to assess positive and negative perceptions of
other majors revealed that 13% of the participants were pursuing attachment relations. Positive aspects of attachment are operation-
degrees in consumer and family studies, 10% were in business, 7% alized by items that measure trust in the accessibility of parents and
were in education, 4% were in technology, 3% were in pharmacy, responsiveness of parents. Negative aspects include items that
and 3% were in science. measure anger or hopelessness resulting from unresponsive par-
ents. The RQ is scored such that higher scores represent more
Measures secure attachment.
Adequate reliability and validity for the IPPA have been reported
Perfectionism. Frost et al.'s (1990) Multidimensional Perfec- by Armsden and Greenberg (1987), who found Cronbach's coeffi-
tionism Scale (MPS) was used to assess adaptive and maladaptive cient alphas to range from .72 to .91. Test-retest correlations
perfectionism. The MPS consists of 35 items responded to with a ranged from .86 to .93 over a 3-week period (Armsden, McCauley,
Likert scale of 1 {disagree strongly) to 5 (agree strongly), with Greenberg, Burke, & Mitchell, 1990). The IPPA has correlated in
higher scores indicating greater perfectionism. The MPS contains expected directions with measures of family cohesion and parent
six subscales. The Concern Over Mistakes subscale (nine items) utilization (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987). Reliability and validity
assesses negative reactions to mistakes and a tendency to equate data for the RQ are not published, although some support exists for
PERFECTIONISM, ATTACHMENT, AND ADJUSTMENT 241
the factor structure of the measure (M. T, Greenberg, personal (Hair et al., 1995, p. 442). Instead, it is recommended that
communication, May 30, 1993). Moreover, several authors have different emergent cluster sets be examined in light of
used the revised version of the measure (i.e., 25 items, scales for
"practical judgment, common sense, or theoretical founda-
mother and father) although they identified it as the IPPA. For
example, in other studies of college students, Schultheiss and tions*' (p. 443). However, there are some guidelines. For
BlusteJn (1994) and Benson, Harris, and Rogers (1992) reported example, a hierarchical cluster analysis produces an agglom-
psychometric and descriptive results for the IPPA comparable with eration schedule, and agglomeration coefficients (or within-
those found with the RQ in our study. cluster sum of squares) can be examined to suggest the
degree of change or heterogeneity in moving from one
Procedure cluster solution to another. Said differently, agglomeration
coefficients are analogous to eigenvalues examined in a
Participants completed a brief demographic form and then scree test in factor analysis; large increases in the coeffi-
completed the measures of perfectionism and attachment. These cients suggest that clusters have been identified that are very
measures were imbedded in a larger survey of instruments that was different from one another (more internally homogenous).
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organized in random order to control sequencing effects. Measures The percentage of change in moving from one cluster
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Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Measurement Reliabilities
Measure Possible (actual) scale ranges Study 1 Study 2
Attachment
RQ Attachment-Mother 25-125(48-125)
M 97.62 97.09
SD 17.99 17.87
a .95 .96
RQ Attachment-Father 25-125 (28-125)
M 86.06 87.59
SD 21.22 20.28
a .96 .96
Perfectionism and Adjustment
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average scores for personal standards and organization than Attachment and Perfectionism
those of the first cluster. Consequently, descriptors of the
second cluster appeared to be theoretically consistent with Logistic regression was used to determine whether attach-
adaptive perfectionism, whereas the first cluster appeared to ment to parents predicted perfectionism. Attachment secu-
be composed of nonperfectionists. Participants in the third rity was expected to be evident among adaptive perfection-
cluster were significantly different from the other clusters on ists, whereas insecure attachment was expected among
each MPS subscale, and those differences revealed more maladaptive perfectionists. Curvilinear associations be-
concerns about making mistakes, higher personal standards, tween attachment and perfectionism also were tested to
greater experiences with parental expectations and criticism, examine the possibility that extremes of attachment (enmesh-
more doubts about their actions, and strong preferences for ment, disengagement) might also be important consider-
organization (higher than nonperfectionists but not as strong ations in identifying adaptive and maladaptive perfection-
as adaptive perfectionists). Thus, participants in the third ists. Because there were no hypotheses regarding attachment
cluster seemed best described as maladaptive perfectionists. and nonperfectionists that group was excluded from these
PERFECTIONISM, ATTACHMENT, AND ADJUSTMENT 243
Table 2
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Frost et ai, 1990) Means and Standard
Deviations by Subscale and Cluster Group (Study 1)
Adaptive Maladaptive
Nonperfectionists perfectionists perfectionists
(n = 70) ( 6 (n = 30)
MPS subscale M SD M SD M SD F(2,173)
Concern Over Mistakes 21.23. 5.77 2O.02a 5.14 31.90b 7.06 48.86
Personal Standards 20.33a 3.19 26.67b 4.02 28.97C 4.20 77.50
Parental Expectations 13.49a 2.91 13.62a 3.43 20.67b 2.62 65.54
Parental Criticism 7.90a 2.91 6.92a 2.36 13.70b 3.23 68.03
Doubts About Actions 9.90a 2.74 9.45a 3.13 12.80,, 2.44 15.32
Organization 20.278 3.92 26.95b 2.69 24.37C 4.75 62.56
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Note. All univariate F tests were significant at p < .0001. Values with different subscripts indicate
significant within-row differences between the clusters (Tukey post hoc comparisons, p < .05). For
example, on Concern Over Mistakes, adaptive and nonperfectionists were not significantly different
from one another, but both groups were significantly lower than maladaptive perfectionists.
analyses. The curvilinear attachment terms were calculated overall accuracy in classification (75%) and much better
by squaring the standardized attachment scores (Pedhazur, sensitivity than specificity. All of the adaptive perfectionists
1982). The linear and curvilinear variables were entered in (75 of 75) were correctly classified based on their Attach-
separate logistic regression analyses predicting the dummy- ment-Father scores. Only 7% of the maladaptive perfection-
coded adaptive (1) and maladaptive (0) perfectionism groups. ists (2 of 28) were correctly classified. The average Attach-
The overall multivariate model involving both the linear ment-Father score for adaptive perfectionists was 88.89
and curvilinear Attachment-Mother scores was significant, (SD = 20.09), and the average score for maladaptive perfec-
X2(2,tf = 105)= 19.17 1 p<.001.Thecurvilineartermwas tionists was 78.72 (SD = 24.41), d = 0.42.
not a significant predictor of perfectionism after accounting A third set of logistic regression analyses were conducted
for the linear attachment term, Ax 2 (l,W = 105) = 0.13,p > in which the linear Attachment-Father and Attachment-
.05. Without the curvilinear term in the model, coefficients Mother scores were entered in equations to examine the
and odds ratios (ORs) revealed that students with higher differential effects of attachment to one parent while control-
Attachment-Mother scores were more likely to be adaptive ling the effects of the other parent (order of entry was
perfectionists; the odds of being an adaptive perfectionist alternated for these tests, and the curvilinear terms were
were 2.62 times greater for a student with secure attachment excluded from the models). Attachment-Father did not
to mother than for a student with insecure attachment (95% account for significant effects in the model over and above
confidence interval [CI] for the OR was 1.62-4.25). Overall, the information gleaned from Attachment-Mother, Ax 2 (l.
Attachment-Mother scores correctly classified approxi- # = 103) = 0.33, p > .05. However, the converse was not
mately 78% of the perfectionists. However, the model true; Attachment-Mother added significantly to the predic-
evidenced better sensitivity than specificity. (Sensitivity tion model after controlling for Attachment-Father, Ax2(l»
refers to the rate of true positives or those who were N= 103) = 12.28, p < .001. The ORs for Attachment-
correctly predicted to be adaptive perfectionists; specificity Father and Attachment-Mother in the full model were 1.17
is the rate of true negatives or the rate of correctly predicting (95% CI = 0.69-1.98) and 2.40 (95% CI = 1.41-4.02),
maladaptive perfectionists.) Approximately 96% (73 of 76) respectively. Overall correct classification was 79%, and the
of the adaptive perfectionists were correctly classified when sensitivity (96%) was much better than the specificity (32%)
their Attachment-Mother scores were known. Only 31% (9 of the predicted classifications.
of 29) of the maladaptive perfectionists were correctly
classified in the prediction model. The average Attachment-
Mother score for adaptive perfectionists was 102.73 Discussion
(SD = 15.18), whereas the average score for maladaptive Cluster analysis procedures revealed groups of perfection-
perfectionists was 84.86 (SD = 21.31), d = 0.84. ists that were remarkably similar to those found by Parker
The overall model of Attachment-Father predicting perfec- (1997), who used similar procedures and measures but a
tionism also was significant, \ 2 (2, N = 103) = 6.06, p < much younger sample than the one used here. In both
.05. The curvilinear term did not add significantly to the investigations, adaptive ("healthy" according to Parker)
model, Ax2O> N= 103) = 1.52, p > .05. Without the perfectionists emerged who had high personal standards and
curvilinear term, the model revealed that greater security in preferences for organization. Likewise, a group of maladap-
the attachment relationship with father increased the likeli- tive ( "dysfunctional") perfectionists also was identified that
hood of being an adaptive perfectionist (OR = 1.60, 95% evidenced high standards and preferences for organization.
CI - 1.03-2.50). As with the analyses of attachment to However, maladaptive perfectionists also were character-
mother, this model yielded a generally good percentage of ized by excessive concerns about making mistakes and
244 RICE AND NORZADEH
self-doubt, and they reported their parents to be exceedingly negative evaluative expectations helps some maladaptive
critical and to have quite high expectations of them. Indeed, perfectionists feel closer to their parents (cf. Saarni et al.,
there were important differences between the perfectionists 1998) or possibly contributes to defensive distortions of the
on a measure of general quality of attachment to parents. parent-child bond. In this way, consistent with their internal-
Maladaptive perfectionists reported insecure relationships, ized self-criticism, they perceive inadequacies within them-
whereas adaptive perfectionists reported secure attachments selves but not with their parents, or at least not with the
to parents. quality of relationships they have with their parents.
The relative importance of the mother-child bond in Although the preceding interpretations seem plausible, it
attachment-perfectionism associations was alluded to in an also should be recalled that an earlier study found no
earlier study of parents and college-age daughters conducted differences between perfectionists on retrospective accounts
by Frost et al. (1991). They found that mothers' but not of parental bonds (Rice et al., 1996). However, Rice et a),
fathers1 perfectionism was significantly associated with did not use the cluster analysis procedure described here and
perfectionism among daughters. Harshness on the part of may have identified groups of perfectionists that were not
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both parents was predictive of daughters' perfectionism. comparable with those observed in this study. Alternatively,
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Frost et al. speculated that daughters may be more affected it may be that differences between perfectionists on mea-
by their mother because of more opportunities to interact sures of attachment may be more discernible when examin-
with their mother than with their father, same-sex modeling ing concurrent perceptions of relationships rather than
effects, and other reasons. Frost et al. also pointed out that, retrospective perceptions. Likewise, although there were
as in the current study, correlational data limit causal differences on attachment between perfectionists in this
inferences regarding the impacts of relationships over time. study, there were only 30 maladaptive perfectionists in-
In contrast to the Frost et al. (1991) findings, the present volved in the analyses, revealing obvious concerns about
study found that attachment bonds reported by adaptive generalizability of these results. Finally, there were no
perfectionists were conspicuous by their high security or independent psychological adjustment indicators used in
quality, and security of attachment was a much better this study that might help clarify the relationship between
predictor of adaptive perfectionism than maladaptive perfec- perfectionism and attachment insofar as they have implica-
tionism. Adaptive perfectionism may emerge from unique tions for other aspects of functioning. Therefore, a second
qualities in attachment relationships that encourage the study was designed to (a) replicate the cluster analysis
development of adaptive perfectionism without detrimental groupings of perfectionists with a larger and more diverse
relational consequences for children when standards are not sample, (b) replicate the findings with regard to perfection-
met. Of course, the correlational design and self-report ism and attachment, and (c) extend the research by examin-
methods used in the present study severely restrict confi- ing the effects of perfectionism on depression and academic
dence in the longitudinal accuracy of the inferences regard- integration.
ing previous parent-child bonds and the development of
perfectionism. Nevertheless, the data do provide support that
perceptions of attachment to parents, especially attachment Study 2
to mothers whether accurate or not, discriminate perfection- Study 2 served as a replication and extension of Study 1.
ism groups. Replication and longitudinal extension of this One purpose of the second study was to demonstrate the
study will need to be undertaken to more completely explore generalizability of the findings from the first study, and
and support these inferences. thereby cross-validate those results by replicating the study
An implication of our findings, limitations and other with another sample. The initial aims for the second study
possibilities notwithstanding, is that the development of were the same as the first study: We expected to be able to
maladaptive perfectionism may emerge in a complex, parent- identify types of perfectionists (adaptive, maladaptive, and
child attachment relationship matrix. Perhaps, as Sorotzkin nonperfectionists) by clustering their scores on the MPS.
(1998), Miller (1996), and others have observed, parents of Adaptive perfectionists then were expected to evidence
maladaptively perfectionistic children may be less emotion- secure attachment bonds with parents, and maladaptive
ally attuned to their children and may be more concerned perfectionists were expected to have insecure attachments,
with the performance or accomplishments of their children. although our confidence in the latter expectation was
Moreover, these parents may impose harsh, critical sanc- diminished by results from Study 1. Linear and curvilinear
tions on their children for not measuring up to expectations, associations were examined again; on the basis of the first
although they may ignore accomplishments simply because study, curvilinear associations between attachment to par-
they are expected and therefore not worthy of special ents and perfectionism were not expected to emerge. In
acknowledgment. The child concurrently or, as suggested by addition, this study examined the association between
our results, subsequently internalizes those expectations perfectionism and two indicators of adjustment: academic
from others as expectations for the self, resulting in a integration and depression. These indicators were selected to
self-critical stance that could likely lead to psychological represent academic and emotional areas of functioning that,
disturbance at worse and limited personal growth at best. on the basis of previous research, would seem likely to be
However, this story seems incomplete given our relatively affected by perfectionism among a sample of university
poorer ability to predict maladaptive perfectionism with students (cf. Parker, 1997; Rice et al., 1996,1998). Adaptive
attachment. It may be that the intemalization of critical and perfectionists were expected to evidence better academic
PERFECTIONISM, ATTACHMENT, AND ADJUSTMENT 245
integration than maladaptive perfectionists, and maladapti ve have performed academically as well as I anticipated I would at
perfectionists were expected to be significantly more de- [name of institution]," "I am satisfied with my course curriculum
pressed than adaptive perfectionists. at [institution],1' and "I am satisfied with my academic experi-
ence." Higher scores on these items indicated greater academic
integration. Although reliability coefficients have not been re-
Method ported, Cabrera et al. (1993) found the items produced adequate
factor loadings (.54 to .67) on an Academic Integration factor in
Participants their measurement model. This factor, in turn, related moderately to
the Grade Point Average factor and indirectly to the College
This sample consisted of students from the same midwestern Persistence factor.
university as the sample in Study 1. A total of 218 students (54 men Depression. Depression was measured with the Center for
and 164 women) were recruited from an initial random listing of Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977).
students across the university. The average age of this sample was The CES-D is a 20-item, self-report measure designed to tap
21.05 years (SD = 3.87), with ages ranging from 18 to 44 years. depression in the general population. Respondents report the
Minority students were oversampled to ensure increased represen-
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sis was conducted to determine sample differences on the about making mistakes and fewer experiences with parental
two scales completed by both samples (MPS and RQ). criticism than evidenced by the third cluster. The average
Separate multivariate analyses of variance were conducted scores within clusters and the comparisons between clusters
for the two constructs (perfectionism and attachment), with suggested that the first cluster was composed of nonperfec-
sample as the independent factor and the multiple subscales tionists, the second cluster was adaptive perfectionists, and
from the MPS and RQ as the dependent variables. There the third cluster was maladaptive perfectionists.
were no significant differences between samples on the MPS
subscales, Wilks's X = 0.98, F(6, 387) = 1.43, p < .202. Attachment and Perfectionism
There also were no differences between samples on the RQ
Attachment-Mother and Attachment-Father subscales, The same logistic regression strategy used in Study 1 was
Wilks's \ = 0.99, F(6,384) = 0.48, p < .622. These results adopted for Study 2. As before, nonperfectionists were
suggested that despite some sample variations, the two excluded from these analyses. Attachment subscale scores
groups were comparable on the main constructs of interest. were standardized before calculating the curvilinear terms.
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Table 3
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Frost et al, 1990) Means and Standard
Deviations by Subscale and Cluster Group (Study 2)
Adaptive Maladaptive
Nonperfectionists perfectionists perfectionists
(n = 63) (n = 81) (n - 74)
MPS subscale M SD M SD M SD F(% 215)
Concern Over Mistakes 18.30a 4.42 19.20a 4.75 29.36* 6.76 92.79
Personal Standards 20.85a 3.45 27.5 l b 3.61 27.36,, 3.69 75.53
Parental Expectations 12.81a 2.90 14.48b 3.62 18.85C 3.30 62.42
Parental Criticism 7.32a 2.53 6.59a 2.02 12.20b 3.11 104.41
Doubts About Actions 10.06a 2.49 8.52b 2.46 12.31C 3.07 38.65
Organization 21.23, 3.98 27.59b 3.03 24.14C 5.19 42.44
Note. All uni variate F tests were significant at p < .0001. Values with different subscripts indicate
significant within-row differences between clusters (T\jkey post hoc comparisons, p < .05).
PERFECTIONISM, ATTACHMENT, AND ADJUSTMENT 247
revealed that greater security in the attachment relationship than maladaptive perfectionists (M = 10.09, SD = 2.51),
with the father increased the probability of being an adaptive r(153) = -5.69, p < .001, d = 0.89. On the CES-D Scale,
perfectionist (OR = 2.44, 95% CI = 1.61-3.71). Overall maladaptive perfectionists (M = 20.54, SD = 10.08) had
classification was modest (63%), with comparable specific- significantly higher scores than adaptive perfectionists
ity and sensitivity emerging: Attachment-Father revealed a (M = 11.90, SD = 8.96), /(153) = 5.65,p < .001, d = 0.86.
68% correct classification of maladaptive perfectionists and It should be recalled that a typical cutoff score indicating
a 59% correct classification of adaptive perfectionists. The clinically significant depression is 16 on the CES-D. The
average Attachment-Father score for adaptive perfectionists average CES-D score for maladaptive perfectionists was
was 93.71 (SD = 20.55), and the average score for maladap- approximately one half a standard deviation above that
tive perfectionists was 80.97 (SD = 18.95), d = 0.62. cutoff and over three fourths of a standard deviation above
As noted, the curvilinear Attachment-Father term also the score for adaptive perfectionists.
was significant (OR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.08-1.90), al-
though this effect was not significant in the first study.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
demic integration did not appear to be significantly altered tive perfectionist group. Future studies may want to examine
by depressed mood. more closely the possibility of perceptual distortions and
other defenses activated within the self-systems of maladap-
tive perfectionists.
General Discussion Attachment to mother may play a different and perhaps
The results of these studies are meaningful on conceptual, more prominent role, when compared with attachment to
empirical, and clinical fronts in the study of perfectionism. father, in the development of perfectionism. Unfortunately,
We were able to discern three theoretically meaningful our assessment of attachment was restricted to a general
clusters of perfectionists on the basis of subscale score dimension of perceived security in relationships; therefore,
groupings of Frost et al.'s (1990) MPS. Similar to Parker's finer grained analyses of the differential impact of mother
(1997) study of sixth graders, the university students who and father on the development of perfectionism were not
participated in this study could be meaningfully grouped possible. Future research may consider parenting roles,
into adaptive, maladaptive, and nonperfectionist clusters. degree and type of contact between parents and perfectionis-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Adaptive perfectionists, compared with the other groups, tic children, and the development of affective as well as
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
evidenced high preferences for order and organization. They cognitive aspects of perfectionism for further clues regard-
tended to endorse setting high personal standards at about ing the attachment-to-parent differences observed in this
the same degree as maladaptive perfectionists, and both of study. Moreover, the design of the current studies and the
these perfectionist groups endorsed the importance of high reliance on students* self-report data did not permit a more
standards more so than nonperfectionists. Maladaptive per- forthright examination of causal or longitudinal associations
fectionists were distinguished from the other groups by their or consideration of different relational perspectives, so
excessive concerns about making mistakes, their strong inferences must be restricted to concurrent consideration of
self-doubts, and their experiences of parents as being critical perfectionism-attachment associations. Future research may
and expecting much of them. want to incorporate relationship perspectives from parents,
Relational correlates with perfectionism have been mini- in addition to students' reports of perfectionism, to examine
mally examined in the literature. Replicated findings in the the relative impact of self- versus other-perceptions in the
current studies revealed that perceptions of secure attach- prediction of perfectionism.
ment to either parent increased the likelihood of being an Maladaptive perfectionists were revealed to be less aca-
adaptive perfectionist, although the effects of attachment to demically integrated and more depressed than adaptive
mother appeared stronger than those of attachment to father. perfectionists were. Perhaps most alarming was that the
However, more comparable odds of being an adaptive average degree of depression among maladaptive perfection-
perfectionist were observed after partialling the effects that ists exceeded a typical cutoff for clinically significant
depression might have on perceptions of attachment. Also, a depression. The strong and consistent association between
curvilinear association between attachment to father and maladaptive perfectionism and depression supports Blatt's
perfectionism decreased to nonsignificance when control- (1995) and Pacht's (1984) emphasis on the "destructiveness
ling the effects of depression (and this curvilinear effect was of perfectionism." Taken with the results regarding aca-
not replicated). Associations between attachment and perfec- demic integration, it seems that maladaptive perfectionists,
tionism must be cautiously interpreted given the correla- despite high standards for excellence, fare poorly on aca-
tional and self-report nature of these data, and with some demic and emotional indicators at the university. Adaptive
results (i.e., curvilinear findings, specificity in predictions) perfectionists, who also endorse high personal standards,
not emerging consistently across studies. It may be that report satisfaction with their courses and academic tasks,
maladaptive perfectionism develops in response to parents and confidence in their academic performance. Such results
who expect much from their children, are excessively suggest that adaptive perfectionism may play a role in
critical of their children, and who may provide little facilitating the academic adjustment and integration of
emotional support and inconsistent responsiveness as their college students, without the emotional or depressogenic
children attempt to meet such demands. It may be the case costs apparent among maladaptive perfectionists. Thus,
that the frequently found association between insecure adaptive perfectionists appear decidedly advantaged in their
attachment and maladajustment in this population (cf. academic pursuits, whereas maladaptive perfectionists ap-
Kenny & Rice, 1995) is in part the result of maladaptive pear decidedly disadvantage^ What is not clear from these
perfectionism. For example, problematic attachment to studies is the degree to which the effects of perfectionism are
parents may set the stage for internalizing harsh, self- domain-specific or more generalized. For example, we
defeating expectations of self and others that place the child observed effects of perfectionism on academic integration
at risk for developing later emotional as well as academic but not on other aspects of college adjustment (e.g., grade
difficulties. Indeed, this general possibility has been consid- point average, social activities, and interpersonal relation-
ered in several theoretical models of counseling and develop- ships). Likewise, we found a relationship between perfection-
ment (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979; Bowiby, 1973; ism and depression but were not able to examine various
Kohut & Wolf, 1978). However, as noted throughout our subtypes of depression or different components of depres-
two studies, the quality of attachment is an imperfect sion. Future research could explore these within-construct
predictor of maladaptive perfectionism, with some quite variations.
securely attached students categorized within the maladap- If the patterns of findings here are consistent in other
PERFECTIONISM, ATTACHMENT, AND ADJUSTMENT 249
research with client samples, then counselors working with of perfectionism, or does it help clients learn how to manage
clients who present with academic problems or depression relatively stable perfectionistic tendencies?). The search for
would be advised to carefully assess the typology of the origins of adaptive perfectionism could be broadened,
perfectionism rather than consider perfectionism from a and such a search may find useful means for encouraging the
unidimensional perspective. Care should be taken with development of adaptive perfectionism and discouraging
interventions directed at perfectionists. For example, from a maladaptive perfectionism.
psychoeducational perspective, it seems reasonable to help
clients learn about perfectionism and its roles in various
adjustment outcomes. It also seems reasonable to help References
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behavior and symptoms of depression and anxiety to the Received January 19, 1999
dimensions of perfectionism among undergraduate women. Revision received August 2, 1999
Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 155-169. Accepted August 18, 1999 •