PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 1 FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY b.

b.) ignorance where the doer failed to understand the effect and the other when one claim the he/she already know who is that
feels sorry on the result. person before they can even speak to.
Freedom - means the absence of resistance. The power or the right A. Under Compulsion– circumstances which are beyond the control
to act, speak, or think as you want without hindrance or restraint. of the agent and contributes none to the action. Example: A person 2. Edmund Husserl - believes that intersubjectivity is more than is
KINDS of restraint and freedom. was kidnapped, hence impossible to resist. just shared understanding, but the capability to put oneself in the
B. Through Ignorance of Particular Circumstances. place where the other is.
Physical freedom is the absence of physical restraint. When a - A man steals and is ignorant of the law. 3 ideas on intersubjectivity are:
prisoner is released from prison, he is physically free, since he is no - An arrow or gunshot by mistake. 1. Empathy- Putting yourself on the shoes of others.
longer restrained by the prison walls. Those ignorant of particulars act involuntarily through ignorance of: 1) doer 2. Availability- Willingness to be present or to be at disposal of
2) deed another.
Moral freedom is the absence of moral restraint, of an obligation, of 3) "object or person affected by it" 3. Ethics of Care - an ethical theory that emphasizes the moral
a law. Thus, in this country, we are morally free to criticize the government. dimension of interactions. It encourages individuals to help people,
According to John Mothershead, freedom and obligation are
Defining freedom of choice and its limits especially the vulnerable
two indispensable conditions for morality to occur.
- The ability to exercise one’s freedom in any manner. By law all Freedom is understood to be present when one is choosing a
3. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.)
human beings are entitled to make decisions in whatever way they course of action, and he or she is taking full responsibility for
– one of the main ideas of Confucianism is Ren or “human-
choose to. consequence of his actions.
heartedness.” It is a virtue central to man that can be found in his
- The only exception to this rule is when an absolute choice harms Intellectual Choice Vs Practical Choice sociality or Intersubjectivity. He stresses order and harmony in the
or delimits the self and others. A. Intellectual Choice – This is a choice which is deliberately world. His aims can be achieved through practical, concrete,
- It can be compared to cause and effect relationship where the selected based on a moral standpoint. Basically, they are normative particular, and perceptual ways. Confucian thinking on
decision concludes with the corresponding effect on the person or answers about what we ought to do from a moral system that we Intersubjectivity is practical humanism. Emphasis on human actions
the environment uphold and its moral principles(which the society will accept.) in sociality. He calls every man to love the other through actions,
Prudence – is an act of making good judgement that allows the B. Practical Choice – a choice which is borne out of psychological not through thoughts.
person to avoid risks. and emotional considerations. Unlike the previously discussed type
of choice, practical choices are made when confronted with the 4. Martin Buber (1878-1965)
Human Actions Vs. Acts of Man actual situation, and usually affected by psychological aspect of the - A Jewish philosopher had interest in the study of relating
person embroiled in the moral situation or dilemma. ourselves to others. He said that “I” or yourself, can only be realized
Human Action - is an act that is performed only by a human being
through recognition of others.” The “I” cannot be aware of its
and thus is proper to man. LESSON 2: INTERSUBJECTIVITY uniqueness and existence without encountering the “ other”.
Human act is an act on which an individual can make a conscious
Types of relating to people
decision whether or not to carry out that act. Intersubjectivity is from the prefix “inter” - “among and between” 1. “I-I” relationships – people make themselves the center of their
Acts of man are actions shared by humans and other animals while “subject”- a conscious being. Intersubjectivity -as “sharing of world. Talking to other people do not interest them and if they talk to
human acts refer to the appropriate actions of human beings. subjective states by two or more individuals.”(Scheff 2006). others, It is I will be the center of the conversation. - It’s all about
Natural act of vegetative and sense faculties such as digestion, the - It refers to the shared meaning constructed by people in their I, me, and myself
beating of the heart, growing, bodily reactions and visual or auditory interactions with each other. 2. “I- It” - treat other people as mere objects or “It”. This will result
perceptions. - It is the Philosophical concept between the self and the other, The to alienation. When human relationships are inauthentic, deceptive
A human act is an action that is considered to be carried out Mutual recognition of each other as persons. and exploitative. This will lead to the dehumanization
voluntarily, whereas an act of man is an involuntary action. - The shared awareness, and understanding among persons. 3. “I- Thou ” - refers to the kind of relationship that is genuine in
treating others. The “I-Thou” relationship treats other people as subjects
Aristotle’s Distinction of Voluntary and Involuntary Actions What Philosophers Say About Intersubjectivity? or equal. This relationship entails open-mindedness, respect, mutual trust,
Voluntary Actions - these are acts originating from the individual love, care, etc.
- Intersubjectivity is universal.
performing the act using knowledge about the situations of the act. - It exists when and where humans exist. - “I” refers to the self and “Thou” or “You” refers to others.
1. Jean-Paul Sartre- He explains that when you look at a person, - “I-Thou” relationship is the most meaningful relationship in the
1. Classifications of Voluntary Actions
the act of objectification allows you to capture that person’s freedom realm of humanity.
A. Voluntary – actions are performed from will and reason.
to be what he/she wants to be. That is, you are limiting a person's
B. Related to Compulsion - it is considered as mixed of voluntary
possibilities by the look. This is evident when you stereotype or 4. Karol Wojtyla (1920-2005) - He is also St. John Paul II but as a
and involuntary. It is more voluntary if the desire and choice has
label a person based on his/her appearance or certain actions. philosopher, we use his real name. Human action is the foundation
been performed and involuntary if it has considered preferences or
Totalization - It occurs when one limit the other to a set of a of our being. Human reality is also about being with others, so our
alternatives.
rational categories, be the racial, sexual or otherwise. One totalize actions are also directed towards others. This form of action is now
2. Involuntary Actions – are acts done under:
a.) force or coercion and called “Participation.”
The Use of Authentic Dialogue in Intersubjectivity - honored internationally, winning first prize in the 2007 International • With the advent of horticultural machinery, people no longer
Art Competition of the Association of Mouth and Foot Painting had to depend on the gathering of edible plants—they could
Dialogue - An interaction between persons through speech, Artists held in Vienna, Austria. now grow their own food.
expressions, and body language.
- occurs when two persons open up to each other and give and accept one 3. Roselle Ambubuyog - Mathematician and Motivational Speaker.
another in their encounter. Roselle was Ateneo de Manila University’s first visually impaired D. Pastoral Societies
- deep and genuine relationships between persons. student. • They rely on the domestication and breeding of animals for
Authentic dialogue - is defined as open and honest conversations food.
that abide by the Habermas speech conditions in which fair - She works for leading tech companies around the world, • The members of a pastoral society must move only when
exchanges of thoughts lead to detecting and correcting errors (or contributing to the advancement of technologies for the blind. the grazing land ceases to be usable.
reconciling differences) amongst engaged actors. LESSON 3: HUMAN PERSON AND SOCIETY
- interpersonal communication wherein individuals acknowledge
that they are part of a greater whole. Society consists of the people and institutions around us, our - Agricultural –focuses on the production of crops and
shared beliefs, and our cultural ideas. raising of farm animals.
Obstacles to a dialogue Promotes Dialogue - Typically, more advanced societies also share a political authority. • They relied on permanent tools for survival.
Seeming - a way of Being - proceeds not from an - It refers to a group of people who live in a definable community • Farmers learned to rotate the types of crops grown on their
approaching the other image, but from what one is. and share the same culture. fields and to reuse waste products such as fertilizer, which
governed by the image one - acceptance of the self as it is. led to better harvests and bigger surpluses of food.
desires to impress on the Types of Society: Pre-Industrial, Industrial, and Post-Industrial - Agrarian (Agricultural)
other. New tools for digging and harvesting were made of metal, and this
- hiding aspects of yourself PRE-INDUSTRIAL made them more effective and longer lasting.
- cowardice of a man
Speechifying- refers to one's Personal making Present - is A. Tribal Society
• “Tribe” peoples living in a primitive setting under a leader or E. Feudal Society –
talking past another. It is the process of fully opening
chief. • Feudalism refers to the economic, political, and social
hearing without listening to oneself to the other.
• Tribe is rooted from Latin which is associated to the political system that prevailed in Europe from about the ninth to the
what one says.
divisions or orders of the Roman empire. fifteenth century.
Imposition- constitutes Unfolding – constitutes finding
• ‘Tribal society’ associates it to other meaning such as Due to the lack of effective centralized government during this
holding one's opinion, values, in the other disposition toward
“primitive society” or “preliterate society.” period, kings and lords granted land and provided protection to
attitudes and oneself without what one recognizes as true,
• Tribal societies are small in scale; bound to their spatial lesser nobles known as vassals.
regard for those of another. good, and beautiful.
- telling others how they should - seeing others as unique and temporal range of relations in terms of society, law, and
act/behave individuals politics; and possess a moral code, cult, and wide range of
belief system. INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
• It introduced fuel-driven machinery in productions of goods.
B. Hunter- Gatherer Society- Forager • Factories are seen as the center of work. Transportation is
more developed and advanced than agricultural societies.
The following are some authentic examples of disadvantaged • They depends primarily on wild foods for subsistence. • Uses advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and
individuals who contributed to society. • foraging strategies have included hunting or trapping big animals, to run large machinery.
game, • The objective of an industrial economy is the fast and
1. Stephen Hawking - physicist and cosmologist efficient manufacturing of standardized products.
• hunting or trapping smaller animals,
- despite his rare medical condition called amyotrophic lateral • fishing, gathering shellfish or insects,
sclerosis (ALS), made significant contributions to contemporary • and gathering wild plant foods such as fruits, vegetables,
tubers, seeds, and nuts. POST INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
studies of relativity quantum physics. • It is marked by a progress from a manufacturing-based to a
service-based economy.
2. Jovy Sasutona - Painter
C. Horticultural Society • It is most evident in countries and regions that were among
- lost the use of his hands after a diving accident, has spent the first to experience the Industrial Revolution, such as the
decades using his mouth and feet to paint vibrant slices of Filipino • In a Horticultural Society, hand tools are used to tend crops. United States, western Europe, and Japan.
life. The tools they used were simple: sticks or hoe-like
instruments used to punch holes in the ground so that crops a. From the production of goods to the production of services;
could be planted.
 b. Replacement of manual laborers with technical and • Reciprocally, society also transforms individuals into social LESSON 4: HUMAN PERSON AND DEATH
professional as the direct production of goods is moved and cultural beings.
elsewhere; • As a part of society, individuals experience enculturation or SCIENCE says death is the ending of life. When a man
c. Replacement of practical knowledge with theoretical the process by which people acquire the knowledge, skills, stops breathing, he is dead. When the heart stops beating, the man
knowledge; attitudes, and culture embedded in the society. is dead. In hospitals, a man is dead when a flat line occurs. Man is
d. Focusing to the theoretical and ethical implications of new • Individuals with common or similar roles are grouped dead if the man has no life. According to the whole-brain standard,
technologies, which helps society avoid some of the together to form social groups and eventually the different human death is the irreversible cessation of the functioning of the
negative features of introducing new technologies, social groups would become social institutions that include entire brain, including the brainstem.
concerning environment and energy; our family, school, government among others.  In Religion, death is usually defined as the transition from
e. Development of recent scientific disciplines—that involve • The social system, therefore, dictates through the norms an earthly life to the life of the soul or death is a gateway to
new forms of information technology, cybernetics, or and institutions how an individual can relate and interact new life.
artificial intelligence with others.
f. Emphasis on the university and polytechnic institutes which  One of the main belief is that the soul will be directed to a
produce graduates who innovate and lead the new place that is proportionate to its moral status during earthly
technologies contributing to a postindustrial society; and life.
g. Changing values and norms which reflects the influences
on the society.  When man is good, he goes up to heaven; he receives a
good karma; he is exulted from all other creatures.

DIGITAL SOCIETY AND THE INFORMATION AGE  When man is bad, he goes down to hell; receive bad
karma; neglected by all, ignored by whoever they call god.
• Digital technologies have wildly affected our interactions
and activity in the 21st century. Existentialist definition of death, is characterized by transition from
• Significantly changed our way of learning, working and being to non-being.
socializing.
Socrates on Death
• Use of modern technology which has led to considering the
• Death is either: Possibility #1 Dreamless Sleep
possible outcome for the society, concerning how we would
• Possibility #2 Passage to another life.
take part in interaction, and how we can use these digital
Human Relations make up patterned interactive relationships Therefore, either way, death is nothing to fear.
tools and communication channels.
which are the most powerful unit of the social system. Epicurus on Death-
• The virtual society and the technological devices today are
• All sensation and consciousness ends with death.
starting to reshape the human person and human
Participation in these interactions establishes an individual’s When man dies, he does not feel the pain of death because he no
interactions and relationships.
social role and status in forming the collective, intricate longer is and therefore feels nothing.
• More interactions are done in the virtual world than in the
characteristics of society. Without human relations, • Fearing nonexistence gets the way of enjoying life.
actual world.
Death, according to Thomas Nagel “…is the unequivocal
institutions and the system itself would cease to exist.
and permanent end of our existence,…”
DIGITAL CITIZEN • Nagel on Death-Fomo-
• Fear of missing out
• A digital citizen is a person who is knowledgeable and In conclusion, Nagel thinks that only real evil of death is dying
responsible enough to effectively use different social prematurely.
platforms in the internet.
• Often engage in useful topics and issues that will help build
a better society, politics and government.
• For Heidegger, it is in death that man experiences his
• Social roles are set of connected behaviors expected to finality.
a certain person.
• However, it is the collective actions of the individuals that mainly
• His death is his very own and no one can take that away
influence how society is formed and structured. from him.
• He will have to face it later on alone by himself.
 • Phenomenological Notion of Death - According to Martin of matter. They initially believe in spontaneous generation, Still, many people are unable to understand their lives and to make

Heidegger (1889-1976) in his book Being and Time, death that living things can arise from non-living materials; for meaning out of it.

is certain, indefinite, one’s property, non-relational, and not example. Worms, flies, or even mice could develop from • The quality of life may play a significant role in the life

to be outstripped. grain, meat or other materials. Creationists believe that life experiences of people.

came from the Supreme Being or God. They use the • Despite differences in the condition of life, all people are
Death is certain.
As part of humanness, we are all born (in Heideggerian sense, we scriptures rather than the scientific evidence, as the basis, capable of creating goals for their lives.
are “thrown”) in the world. The world is governed by time.
 We, humans, are existing in time, thus, as being thrown in of their beliefs. The story of creation in the Bible in the book
the world, we have beginning and since we are finite
beings, we also have end – death. of Genesis chapters 1-2, support this belief.
 Birth and death are two things we cannot remove from our
existence.  There have been three main philosophical approaches to
Whether we like it or not, we will die.
the problem of defining life that remain relevant today:
Death is indefinite.
While death is sure to come, it is however indefinite as to when it  Aristotle's -life as animation, a fundamental, irreducible
will come.
 Death is impending, meaning to say, it can happen anytime. property of nature;
We do not know exactly when.
 That is why, we should try to live the best life that we can  Descartes's -life as mechanism;
for we never know the day of our end.
 Kant's -life as organization,
Death is one’s property.
The death of the person belongs to him. Nobody can experience his  In addition we may add the idea of defining life as an
death except himself. There can be no proxies or substitutes for a
person in experiencing death. emergent property of particular kinds of complex systems

(Weber 2010).

Death is non-relational. Life - the condition that distinguishes organisms from inorganic
 when we die, we die alone. We have no choice but to face it
on our own. objects and dead organisms, being manifested by growth through
 Death also removes all our relations to others.
 In contemplating death, we realize our own individuality and metabolism, reproduction, and the power of adaptation to
independence from the world.
environment through changes originating internally.
Death is not to be outstripped.
 Death cannot be taken away from a person. • Life is short and unpredictable.
 One cannot make himself live forever. Even though we see
in fiction movies the idea of immortality, death, in real life is • For many people, there is a purpose in living, and gradually
a definite reality which we nothing can be done to be
outstripped. going through life allows one to discover his real purpose.
 Origin of Life: Evolutionists-believe that everything in the

cosmos, including life, can be explained by the interaction

PR 2: • Present the rationale or appropriateness of the instrument
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY A Research Instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and
analyze data related to your research interests. These tools are
After going through these provided activities, you are expected to: most commonly used in health sciences, social sciences, and
1. Describe the sampling procedure and sample education to assess patients, clients, students, teachers, staff,
etc.
2. plans data collection, data gathering
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method where
instruments, and analysis procedures currently enrolled research participants help recruit future subjects
for a study.
Sampling Procedure
■ Present the sampling method used
• Give the conceptual definition of the sampling method
• Present the rationale for choosing this sampling method
There are two types of sampling methods: Probability sampling The Variables, their Definitions and Importance to the Study
involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical
inferences about the whole group. The current state of the learners nowadays, prompted the
researcher as a Mathematics teacher, to make a study focusing on
Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on developing the learner's ability in problem solving, analyzing
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data mathematical concepts and other related topics in Geometry within
which the researcher find most appropriate.
For qualitative and quantitative research, various sampling methods
are available. Manipulative Models with Learning Guide
For qualitative, you may use PURPOSIVE This refers to the different learning activities with the use of
SAMPLING,CONVENIENCE SAMPLING, OR SNOWBALL manipulative models with learning guide in Geometry to enhance
SAMPLING the understanding of students in different concepts.
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method where The action research of Rubin et al. (2014) shows that the activities
currently enrolled research participants help recruit future subjects they included in modeling integers improved the performance of
for a study. Grade 7 learners, the researchers administered a pretest and
posttest with respect to integers. The
Purposeful Sampling: Also known as purposive and selective
sampling, purposeful sampling is a sampling technique that Types of Quantitative Research Designs
qualitative researchers use to recruit participants who can provide
in-depth and detailed information about the phenomenon under Research problems vary. Although every research problem is
investigation. unique there are certain similarities relating to situational variables
like personal characteristics, areas of significance, among others.
Convenience Sampling: This is a sampling technique that Basic quantitative research designs can be used to address or
qualitative researchers use to recruit participants who are easily match given problems and objectives.
accessible and convenient to the researchers. Oftentimes this may
include utilizing geographic location and resources that make The three (3) traditional categories of research designs are
participant recruitment convenient. exploratory, descriptive and causal.

Research Instrument Exploratory Research Design

■ Present the research instrument used An exploratory research design is often used to establish an initial
understanding and background information about a research study
• Give the conceptual definition of research instrument of interest, oftenly with very few or no earlier related studies found
relevant to the research study.
This research design is described as an informal or unstructured • Evaluation Research The initial implementation of the K-12 program is a very good topic
way of investigating available sources. You may conduct library for evaluation under this type of research design. Whatever
search, secondary data analysis, experience surveys, opinlonnaire, Evaluation research is conducted to elicit useful feedback from a evaluation is to be done will be a part of a monitoring program for
case analysis, focus groups, projective techniques and Intermet variety of respondents from various fields to aid in decision making the K-12 implementation.
searches. Secondary data include information which you may or policy formulation.
gather from books, joumals proceedings, newsletters, magazines, Here are some examples of summative evaluation:
Commonly used types of evaluation based on the purpose of the
annual reports and many others. Experience surveys refer to study are Formative and Summative evaluation. • Secondary Data Analysis
gathering data from key informants about a research topic. In case
analysis, you may review past experiences or situations that may Formative evaluation is used to determine the quality of You may examine existing data for analysis. For example, you may
have some similarities with the present research problem. You can implementation of a project, the efficiency and effectiveness of a want to find out the influence of gender and mental ability in the
also gather small groups of people and conduct focus group program, assessment of organizational processes such as results of the National Achievement Test (NAT) in your school or in
discussions. Through an unstructured discussion, you can gain procedures, policies, guidelines, human resource development and your region.
information relevant to the research study that you plan to the like.
undertake. Impact Evaluation
• On the other hand, Summative evaluation is done after the
Descriptive Research Design implementation of the program. It examines the outcomes, products This is used to evaluate the overall effect of the program in its
or effects of the program. entirety For example, you may want to determine the effect of
Descriptive research design is used to gather information on current remedial classes on the performance of students in mathematics in
situations and conditions. It helps provide answers to the questions Here are some examples of formative evaluation: your school.
of who, what, when, where and the how of a particular research
study. Descriptive research studies provide accurate data after • Needs Assessment Outcome Evaluation
subjecting them to a rigorous procedure and using large amounts of
Evaluates the need for the program or project. For example, how This is done to determine if the program has caused useful effects
data from large numbers of samples. This design leads to logical
great is the need for a remedial program in mathematics? Who based on target outcomes. For example, you may want to
conclusions and pertinent recommendations. However, the
needs the program? When can the program start? Where or in what determine if a leadership training program for officers of student
descriptive research design is dependent to a high degree on data
college will the program be implemented and what are needed to organizations of a certain public secondary school have enhanced
collection instrumentation for the measurement of data and
implement the program? the leadership skills of the participants.
analysis.
. Process Evaluation Cost-effectiveness Evaluation
According to Polit and Hungles (1999), the following research
designs are classified as descriptive design: Evaluates the process of implementation of a program. For Also called cost-benefit analysis, it compares the relative costs to
example, you may want to conduct a study on the implementation of the outcomes or results of some courses of action. For example,
• Survey
the Student Information System (SIS) in your school. Some you may conduct a study on the value for money returns of a
The survey research design is usually used in securing opinions questions would be: how will students and teachers assess the company brought about by an intensive training investment for
and trends through the use of questionnaires and interviews. A efficiency of the current process of the SIS? Is it working well? What employees in the Sales department.
survey is used in gathering data from institutions, government and suggestions may be implemented to improve the program? When
will the recommendations from teachers and students be Causal Research Design
businesses to help in decision-making regarding change strategies,
improving practices, analysing views on choice of products or implemented to improve the program considering the cost and other Causal research design is used to measure the impact that an
market research. Surveys can be conducted face-to-face or online. technicalities? independent variable (causing effect) has on another variable
Online surveys are widely used because gathering data from the (being effected) or why certain results are obtained. A valid
Implementation Evaluation
target respondents or completing of questionnaires is fast using the conclusion may be derived when an association between the
Internet. Evaluates the efficiency or effectiveness of a project or program. independent variable and the dependent variable is obtained. It can
For example, how effective is the scholarship program in your also be used to identify the extent and nature of cause-and-effect
• Correlation Research
school? Are the criteria followed? How many students availed relationships. Causal research can help businesses determine how
Correlation research design is used for research studies aimed to themselves of said scholarships and how many students graduated decisions may affect operations. A restaurant owner may want to
determine the existence of a relationship between two or more successfully? find out why he/she has fewer customers than their neighboring
variables and to determine the degree of the relationship. Examples restaurants that resulted in decline in sales. So management may
Program Monitoring conduct his/her study on the quality of the food, the price of the
of correlational research involving two (2) quantitative variables that
can be correlated are: mental ability and grade in math, gender and Evaluates the performance and implementation of an unfinished food, cleanliness or the quality of services accorded to the
math performance; advertising costs and sales; and income and program. The evaluation is done prior to the completion of the customers. Thus, the purpose of the research study is to find out
expenses. program. It helps improve implementation and achieve best results. the factors that cause the decline in the number of customers in the
said restaurant.
In addition to the discussion on the characteristics of the three main For example, assume that you want to conduct a survey of 100 an appropriate number of students are drawn from all levels of the
categories of quantitative research designs, Table 1 outlines other senior high school students in a certain private school. To get the junior high school track.
points of comparison of their characteristics: desired sample size of 100, you can do the selection process, either
manually or electronically, ensuring that each student in the In this case, you have to stratify by level (first year, second year,
population has an equal chance of being drawn from the total third year and fourth year). When these have been determined, you
population of senior high school students in that school. may draw a sample from each stratum with a separate draw from
each of the different strata. The sample sizes within the strata
Systematic Random Sampling should be pre-determined.
Systematic random sampling follows specific steps and procedures The primary advantage of this technique is to ensure that cases
in doing the random selection of the samples. It requires a list of the from each stratum of the population are given importance as in the
elements and every nth element in the list is drawn for inclusion in other groupings.
the sample. If for instance, you have a list of 5,000 persons and you
need a sample of 500, here are the steps to follow:
Divide the number of elements in the population by the desired
sample size.
In this case, you divide 5,000 by 500 which gives a value of 10.
Choose a random number between one and the value you obtained
from Step 1. In this example, you choose a number between 1 and
10, let's say you choose 5.
Starting with the number you picked which is 5, you take every tenth
(10) (from Step 1) and you use 5 as your starting point. Thus, you
have to select the samples whose numbers are 5, 15, 25, 35, 45
and so on until you reach the desired sample size of 500.
Stratified Random Sampling
In this type of probability sampling procedure, the population is first
divided into two or more mutually exclusive categories based on
your variables of interest in the research study. The population is
organized into homogeneous subsets before drawing the samples.
With stratified random sampling, the population is divided into
Cluster Sampling
subpopulation called strata. If your variable of interest is economic
status based on the family combined income level, you can divide Most large scale surveys use cluster sampling method. Cluster
the population into strata of different income levels (low, average, sampling is used when the target respondents in a research study is
high income with specific numerical value of annual family income spread across a geographical location. In this method, the
per level). When these have been determined, you may draw a population is divided into groups called clusters which are
Probability Sampling Procedures sample from each stratum with a separate draw from each of the heterogeneous in nature and are mutually exclusive. A random
different strata. The sample sizes within the strata can now be sampling technique is used on relevant clusters to be included in
The most important characteristics of probability sampling
procedure is the random selection of the samples. Specifically, each determined. the study.
sample (n) or element from the population (N) has an equal chance The primary advantage of this technique is that cases from each
Cluster sampling may be classified as either single-stage, two-stage
of selection under a given sampling technique. Four (4) probability stratum of the population are given importance, as in the other cluster sampling or there also exists multi-stage cluster sampling. In
sampling procedures are described below: groupings single-stage cluster sampling, all the members from each of the
Simple Random Sampling selected clusters are used in the sampling process. In two-stage
To illustrate the procedure to be followed in this probability sampling
cluster sampling, a subset of elements within each selected cluster
technique suppose you're interested in how frequent internet use
This is the most frequently used type of probability sampling is randomly selected for inclusion in the sample. In multi-stage
varies by level among junior high school students. To explore this
technique. This is characterized by the idea that the chance of sampling, more than two steps are taken. in selecting clusters from
inquiry, rather than taking simple random samples from the school's
selection is the same for every member of the population. clusters. Examples are those which consider geographical
population of junior high school students, you need to ensure that
clustering as provinces, towns or cities. Thus, multi-stage sampling the specific condition, for example, is for both genders, males and DESIGNING THE QUESTIONAIRE
takes a large population into account. females are to be represented equally in the sample group, then if
60 representatives are needed, then you get 30 males and 30 A QUESTIONAIRE is an instrument for collecting data.
Non-Probability Sampling Procedures females from each group. The main difference between stratified It consists of a series of questions that respondents provide
There are situations when the researcher cannot employ random random sampling and quota sampling can be explained in a way answers to a research study.
selection. In cases where probability sampling is not applicable, you that in quota sampling, you use non-random selection.
may consider some non-probability sampling alternatives. A step-by-step approach is discussed in this section with the hope
that you, the researcher will produce a valid and reliable instrument
Convenience Sampling for gathering data.
This is a method of selecting samples that are available and are STEP 1-BACKGROUND
capable of participating in a research study on a current issue. This
method is sometimes. called haphazard or availability sampling. An You do basic research on the background of the chosen variable or
example would be conducting a survey or interview on a captive construct.
audience inside a mall or park or school to obtain a quick response Choose a construct that you can use to craft the purpose and
of public opinion on an issue about election of public officials. objective of the questionnaire. In research, the term construct refers
Snowball Sampling to a trait or characteristic that you like to evaluate or measure.

Snowball sampling is a technique where the researcher identifies a Some examples of construct are weight, height, intelligence levels,
key informant about a research of interest and then ask that levels of satisfaction, aggression, skills, academic performance.
respondent to refer or identify another respondent who can THERE ARE FIVE (5) MAIN TYPES OF VARIABLES:
participate in the study. The identification of the samples follows a
multiplier effect, that is, one person is asked to refer the researcher Independent or Explanatory Variables
to another respondent and so on. This technique is applicable when
researchers find difficulty in locating special numbers of a These are variables that cause, influence or explain a change in the
population. The chain referral procedure allows the researcher to dependent variable. There maybe one or more independent
reach the desired samples. For example, an ethnographic research variables in a research study. For example, some variable which
of the indigenous groups called Mangyans who are living in the may influence a student's academic achievement in Mathematics
island of Mindoro used snowball sampling to locate respondents. are: mental ability, age, gender, seating arrangement or educational
Based on this unpublished research study, the total population of qualification.
the eight (8) ethnic groups called Mangyans may be around100,000
Discrete Variables
according to official records. But according to the researcher, they
are difficult to locate because of distance (remote areas) and some These are variables which can also be counted bust must be a
have little contact with the lowlanders or the outside world. whole number. Some varaibles are continuous but reported as
discrete when they are rounded off.
Purposive Sampling
STEP 2- QUESTIONNAIRE CONCEPTALIZATION
Purposive sampling sometimes called judgmental or subjective
sampling employs a procedure in which samples are chosen for a Choose the response scale to use. This is how you want your
special purpose. It may involve members of a limited group of respondents to answer the questions in your study. You can choose
population. For example, you may want to conduct a study on why from the following response scales:
Grade 11 students chose the Voc-Tech track over the Academic
track. You, therefore, find your samples and your first question Yes/No
would be "Are you planning to go to the university?" Those who will
Yes/No/Don't Know
say "No" would not be included in the study.
This type of responses scale allows the
Quota Sampling
respondent to select only one answer.
Quota Sampling is gathering a representative sample from a group
based on certain characteristics of the population chosen by the The "don't know" answer is the neutral response.
researcher. Usually the population is divided into specific groups. If
STEP 2- QUESTIONNAIRE CONCEPTALIZATION
Once you decided on the construct and the response scale you will
use, you may develop the questions for your questionnaire using
the following guidelines in mind: The questions should be clear,
concise and simple using minimum number of words. Avoid lengthy
and confusing lay-out. Classify your questions under each
statement based on your problem statement.
• Questions should be consistent within the needs of the study.
Avoid sensitive or highly debatable questions.
 Grade 11 Math may be predicted by his/her math performance in "Revise the question/statement. Indicate the specific variables to be
junior high school. measured."
Construct validity "Retain the question/statement. This is good."
This is concerned with the extent to which a measure is related to "There are missing options in the list of choices." "The question is
other measures as specified in a theory or previous research. It is so long. It's getting boring."
an experimental demonstration that a test is measuring the
construct it claims to be measuring. Step 6- Revise the Questionnaire

Step 4-Establish the Reliability of the Questionaire After identifying the problem areas in your questionnaire, revise the
instrument as needed based on the feedback provided during the
Reliability indicates the accuracy or precision of the measuring pre-testing or pilot-testing. The best questionnaire is one that is
instrument (Norland, 1990). It refers to a condition where edited and refined towards producing clear questions arranged
measurement process yields consistent responses over repeated logically and in sequential order. The questionnaire should match
measurements. To apply this concept in research, you need a with the research objectives.
questionnaire that is reliable. You need questions that yield
consistent scores when asked repeatedly. PURPOSES OF DATA ANALYSIS PLAN

Here are some ways to assess the reliability of a questionnaire: The purpose of a data analysis plan is to gather useful information
to find solutions to research questions of interest. It may be used to:
Test-retest reliability This is the simplest method of assessing
reliability. The same test or questionnaire is administered twice and Describe data sets;
correlation between the two sets of scores is computed. Determine the degree of relationship of variables;
Split-half method Determine differences between variables;
This method is also called equivalent or parallel forms. In this Predict outcomes; and
method, two different tests covering the same topics are used and
the correlation between the two sets of scores is calculated. Compare variables.
Internal consistency EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS
This method is used in assessing reliability of questions measured This type of data analysis is used when it is not clear what to expect
on an interval or ratio scale. The reliability estimate is based on a from the data. This strategy uses numerical and visual
single form of test administered on a single occasion. One popular presentations such as graphs. Since the research of interest is new,
formula to measure internal consistency is called Cronbach's alpha. it is possible to find some inconsistencies, such as missing values,
This can be computed using manual and electronic computations distribution of the data or unusually small or too large values or
such as the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. Cronbach invalid data.
alpha can range.
Ratio Scale
Step 5- Pilot Testing of the Questionnaire
Ratio scale is considered the highest level of measurement. It has
Pre-testing or pilot testing a questionnaire is important before you the characteristics of an interval scale but it has a zero point.
Concurrent validity use it to collect data. Through this process, you can identify Because of this property, all statistical operations can be performed
questions or statements which are not clear to the participants or on ratio scales. All descriptive and inferential statistics may be
This type of validity measures how well the results of an evaluation there might be some problems with the relevance of the applied. All variables can be added, subtracted, multiplied and
or assessment correlate with other assessments measuring the questionnaire to the current study. divided.
same variables or constructs.
After designing the questionnaire, you may find 10-15 people from DESCRIPTIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Predictive validity your target group to pre-test the questionnaire. You design or
provide spaces where the testers can freely indicate their remarks. This type of data analysis is used to describe, show or summarizes
This measures how well the results of an assessment can predict a Such remarks may be any of the following: data in a meaningful way, leading to a simple interpretation of data.
relationship between the construct being measured and future Descriptive data analyses do not allow you to formulate conclusions
behaviour. For example, the academic performance of a student in "Delete this statement. I don't understand the question/statement." beyond the data that you have described. The commonly used
descriptive statistics are those that analyzes the distribution of data With interval data, addition and subtraction are possible but you
such as frequency, percentage, measure of central tendency and cannot multiply or divide.
measures of dispersion.
A. DESCRIPTIVE DATA ANALYSIS
INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS
1. Measures of Central Tendency
Inferential statistics tests hypothesis about a set of data to reach
conclusions or make generalizations beyond merely describing the Supposed, senior high school students were asked how many
data. Inferential include tests of significance such as the t-test, hours they spent on the computer, and in what subject they often
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA); and tests of relationship such as used the computer for. Results of the survey could indicate that on
Product Moment Coefficient or Correlation or Pearson r, Searman the average, the senior high school students spent two (2) or more
rho, linear regression and Chi-square test. hours with a range of one (1) to four (4) hours.
1. Measures of Central Tendency
B. For Grouped Data
1.2 The Weighted Mean
The weighted average or weighted mean is necessary in some
situations. Supposed that you are given the means of two or more
measurements and you wish to find the mean of all the measures
combined into one group. The formula for weighted mean is given
by, Mean (X)=X n
Where:
f= frequency
x= numerical value or items in a se of data
Nominal Scale n=number of observations in the data set
A nominal scale of measurement is used for labelling variables. It is
sometimes called categorical data. The Yes or No scale is an
example of nominal data. The numbers assigned to the variables
have no quantitative value. Some examples of variables measured
on a nominal scale are gender, religious affiliation, race or ethnic
group.
Ordinal Scale
An ordinal scale of measurement assigns order on items on the
characteristics being measured. It involves the ranking of
individuals, attitudes, and characteristics. Examples: Order in the
honor roll (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) Order of agreement (strongly agree,
agree, strongly disagree)
Economic status ( low, average, high)
Interval Scale
The interval scale has equal units of measurement, thereby, making
it possible to interpret the order of the scale scores and the distance
between them. However, Interval scales do not have a "true zero"
1.1. MEAN value. If the array contains an even number of observations, the
median is the average of the two middle values.
Often called the arithmetic mean of a set of data.
Example 1:
It is the sum of the observed values in the distribution divided by the
number of observation. Consider these odd numbers of numerical values: 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 12,
23 By inspection, the median is 9 because half of the values (7, 8,
• It is the frequency used for interval or ratio data. 8) are below 9 and half (10, 12, 23) are above 9. Since n = 7 is odd,
• The symbol X (x bar) is used to denote the arithmetic mean. the median has rank th th (1)= (1) = 4th item and is equal to 9.

In the given example, the findings are presented as averages. The Answer: The Median is 9.
use of the phrase "on the average" and the word "typical" denote Example 2:
that one is interested to determine the center or middle of a set of
data. The common measures of central tendency, sometimes called Consider these even numbers of numerical values: 12, 15, 18, 22,
measures of location or center, include the mean, median and 30, 32. The two middle values are 18 and 22. If the average of the
mode. two middle numbers is taken, that is, 18+ 2240 and divided by 2, the
median is 20. Answer: The Median is 20.

1.4 Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set of
observations. In cases where there is more than one observation
which is the highest but with equal frequency, the distribution is
bimodal (with 2 highest observations) or multimodal with more than
1.3 Median two highest observations. In cases where every item has an equal
number of observations, there is no mode. The mode is appropriate
The median is the midpoint of the distribution. It represents the point for nominal data.
in the data where 50% of the values fall below that point and 50%
fall above it. When the distribution has an even number of Example 1:
observations, the median is the average of the two middle scores. The ages of fifteen (15) persons assembled in a room are as
The median is the most appropriate measure of central tendency for follows: 16, 18, 18, 18, 25, 25, 25, 30, 34, 36 and 38.
ordinal data.
Solution:
A. For Ungrouped Data
An age of 25 is the mode because it has been recorded three times
The median may be calculated from ungrouped data by doing the in the sample, more than any other age.
following steps:
Answer: Mode = 25
1. Arrange the items (scores, responses, observations) from lowest
to highest. 2. Count to the middle value. For an odd number of Example 2:
values arranged from lowest to highest, the median corresponds to
The number of hours spent by 10 students in an internet café was
as follows: 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5
Solution:
Both 2 and 4 have a frequency of 3. The data is therefore bimodal.
Answer: Mode = 2 and 4
Example 3:
Referring to the data on the distribution of the ages of 100 people
interviewed for a survey on a topic on national interest, the modal
class is 31-40. The mode which corresponds to the class midpoint
would be 31+40 = 35.5. 2
2. Measures of Dispersion
Suppose you ask a group of senior high school students to rate the
quality of food at the school canteen and you find out that the
average rating is 3.5 using the following scale: 5 (Excellent); 4 (Very
Satisfactory); 3 (Satisfactory); 2 (fair); and 1 (Poor).
How close are the ratings given by the students? Do their ratings
cluster around the middle point of 3, or are their ratings spread or
dispersed, with some students giving ratings of 1 and the rest giving
ratings of 5?
The extent of the spread, or the dispersion of the data is described
by a group of measures called measures of dispersion, also called
measures of variability. The measures to be considered are the
range, average or mean deviation, standard deviation and the
variance.
2.1 The Range
The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest
values in a set of data.
Consider the following scores obtained by ten (10) students
participating in a mathematics contest:
6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28
Thus, the range is 22. The scores range from 6 to 28.
2.2 Average (Mean) Deviation
This measure of spread is defined as the absolute difference or
deviation
between the values in a set of data and the mean, divided by the
total number of
values in the set of data. In mathematics, the term "absolute"
represented by the sign "I I" simply means taking the value of a
number without regard to positive or negative sign.