S2_Unit-4

PL/SQL Concepts
Topics to be covered
• View
• Stored Procedures
• Database Triggers
• Cursors
Advantages of PL/SQL
§ Block structure:
• PL/SQL consist of block of code, which can be nested within each other.
• Each block forms a unit of a task or a logical module.
• PL/SQL blocks can be stored in the database and reused.
§ Procedural language capability:
• PL/SQL consist of procedural constructs such as conditional statements (if, if
else, nested if, else if ladder) and loops (for, while, do while).
§ Better performance:
• PL/SQL engine processes multiple SQL statements simultaneously as a single
block, thereby reducing network traffic.
§ Error handling:
• PL/SQL handles errors or exceptions effectively during the execution of PL/SQL
program.
• Once an exception is caught, specific action can be taken depending upon the
type of the exception or it can be displayed to the user with message.
View
§ In SQL, a VIEW is a virtual relation based on the result-set of a
SELECT statement.
§ A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields
in a view are fields from one or more real tables in the database.
§ In some cases, we can modify a view and present the data as if the
data were coming from a single table.
§ Syntax:-
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example of view
§ Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
ID NAME AGE CITY SALARY
1 Ramesh 32 Ahmedabad 20000
2 Karan 35 Rajkot 15000
3 Mayur 30 Surat 22000
4 Dipak 35 Rajkot 20000
5 Nilesh 38 Surat 29000
6 Kalpesh 37 Ahmedabad 26000

§ We create a view that contain customer name and age from

CUSTOMERS table:
Example of view
§ Syntax:- NAME AGE
Ramesh 32
CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS Karan 35
SELECT name, age Mayur 30
Dipak 35
FROM CUSTOMERS;
Nilesh 38
Kalpesh 37
§ Now, you can query CUSTOMERS_VIEW in similar way as you
query an actual table. Following is the example:
SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW;
Stored procedure
§ A stored procedure (proc) is a group of PL/SQL statements that
performs specific task.
§ A procedure has two parts, header and body.
§ The header consists of the name of the procedure and the
parameters passed to the procedure.
§ The body consists of declaration section, execution section and
exception section.
§ A procedure may or may not return any value. A procedure may
return more than one value.
Stored procedure (Syntax)
§ CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name
[list of parameters]
AS
sql_statement
Stored procedure
§ Create:-It will create a procedure.
§ Replace :- It will re-create a procedure if it already exists.
§ We can pass parameters to the procedures in three ways.
1. IN-parameters: - These types of parameters are used to send values to
stored procedures.
2. OUT-parameters: - These types of parameters are used to get values from
stored procedures. This is similar to a return type in functions but
procedure can return values for more than one parameters.
3. IN OUT-parameters: - This type of parameter allows us to pass values into
a procedure and get output values from the procedure.
Stored procedure
§ AS indicates the beginning of the body of the procedure.
§ sql_statement contains the SQL query. (select, insert, update or
delete)
§ The syntax within the brackets [ ] indicates that they are optional.
§ By using CREATE OR REPLACE together the procedure is created if
it does not exist and if it exists then it is replaced with the current
code.
How to execute a stored procedure?
§ There are two ways to execute a procedure.
1. From the SQL prompt.
Syntax: EXECUTE [or EXEC] procedure_name (parameter);
2. Within another procedure: simply use the procedure name.
Syntax: procedure_name (parameter);
Advantages of stored procedure
§ Security:- We can improve security by giving rights to selected
persons only.
§ Faster Execution:- It is precompiled so compilation of procedure
is not required every time you call it.
§ Sharing of code:- Once procedure is created and stored, it can be
used by more than one user.
§ Productivity:- Code written in procedure is shared by all
programmers. This eliminates redundant coding by multiple
programmers so overall improvement in productivity.
Example of stored procedure
§ CREATE [OR ALTER] PROCEDURE get_studentname_by_id
@id int
AS
SELECT studentname FROM student WHERE studentID = @id;

§ Execute:- EXEC get_studentname_by_id 10

§ Explanation:- Above procedure gives the name of student whose

id is 10.
Database triggers
§ A trigger is a PL/SQL block structure which is triggered (executed)
automatically when DML statements like Insert, Delete, and
Update is executed on a table.
§ In SQL Server we can create the following 3 types of triggers:
1. Data Definition Language (DDL) triggers
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML) triggers
3. Logon triggers
Data Definition Language (DDL) triggers
§ In SQL Server we can create triggers on DDL statements (like
CREATE, ALTER and DROP) and certain system-defined Stored
Procedures that does DDL-like operations.
Data Manipulation Language (DML) triggers
§ In SQL Server we can create triggers on DML statements (like
INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE) and Stored Procedures that do
DML-like operations. DML Triggers are of two types.
1. After trigger (using FOR/AFTER CLAUSE)
2. Instead of trigger (using INSTEAD OF CLAUSE)
Data Manipulation Language (DML) triggers
§ DML Triggers are of two types.
1. After trigger (using FOR/AFTER CLAUSE) : After triggers are
executed after completing the execution of DML statements.
• Example: If you insert a record/row into a table then the
trigger related/associated with the insert event on this table
will executed only after inserting the record into that table.
• If the record/row insertion fails, SQL Server will not execute
the after trigger.
Data Manipulation Language (DML) triggers
§ DML Triggers are of two types.
2. Instead of Trigger (using INSTEAD OF CLAUSE) : Instead of
trigger are executed before starts the execution of DML
statements.
• An instead of trigger allows us to skip an INSERT, DELETE, or
UPDATE statement to a table and execute other statements
defined in the trigger instead. The actual insert, delete, or
update operation does not occur at all.
• Example: If you insert a record/row into a table then the trigger
related/associated with the insert event on this table will be
executed before inserting the record into that table.
• If the record/row insertion fails, SQL Server will execute the
Instead of Trigger.
Logon triggers
§ This type of trigger is executed against a LOGON event before a
user session is established to the SQL Server.
Database triggers
§ When triggers can be used,
• Based on change in one table, we want to update other table.
• Automatically update derived columns whose values change based on other
columns.
• Logging.
• Enforce business rules.
Triggers (syntax)
§ CREATE [OR ALTER] TRIGGER trigger_name
ON table_name
{ FOR | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{ [ INSERT ] [ , ] [ UPDATE ] [ , ] [ DELETE ] }

AS
BEGIN
Executable statements
END;
Triggers
§ CREATE [OR ALTER ] TRIGGER trigger_name:-
• This clause creates a trigger with the given name or overwrites an existing
trigger.
§ ON table_name:-
• This clause identifies the name of the table or view to which the trigger is
related.
§ { FOR | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }:-
• This clause indicates at what time the trigger should be fired. Before
executing DML statements or after executing DML statements.
Triggers
§ { [ INSERT ] [ , ] [ UPDATE ] [ , ] [ DELETE ] } :-
• This clause determines on which kind of statement the trigger should be
fired.
• Either on insert or update or delete or combination of any or all.
• More than one statement can be used together separated by comma. The
trigger gets fired at all the specified triggering event.
Example of triggers
§ Trigger to display a message when we perform insert operation on
student table.

CREATE TRIGGER student_msg

on Student
AFTER INSERT
AS
BEGIN
print ‘Record inserted successfully'
END
Example of triggers
§ OUTPUT:- Trigger is created.
§ Now when you perform insert operation on student table.
§ SQL:> Insert into student values (101, ‘Raj’, ‘CE’);
§ It displays following message after executing insert statement.
§ Output:- Record inserted successfully
§ We get message that “Record inserted successfully” it indicates
that trigger has executed after the insertion operation.
Example of triggers
§ Trigger to display a message when we perform insert, update or
delete operation on student table.

CREATE TRIGGER student_msg

on Student
AFTER INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
AS
BEGIN
print ‘One record is affected'
END
Example of triggers
§ OUTPUT:- Trigger is created.
§ Now when you perform insert, update or delete operation on
student table.
§ SQL:> Insert into student values (102, ‘Raj’, ‘CE’); OR
Update student set Dept=‘EC’ where Rno=101 OR
Delete from student where Rno=101
§ It displays following message after executing insert, update or
delete statement.
§ Output:- One record is affected
§ We get message that “One record is affected” it indicates that
trigger has executed after the insertion operation.
Example of triggers
§ Trigger to insert history into Audit table when we perform insert
operation on student table.
CREATE TRIGGER tgr_student_forinsert
ON Student
FOR INSERT
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @id int
SELECT @rno= rno from INSERTED
INSERT INTO Audit VALUES
('New student with rno=‘ + cast(@rno as varchar(10)) +
'is added on‘ + cast(getdate() as varchar(50)))
END
Cursor
§ Cursors are database objects used to traverse the results of a
select SQL query.
§ It is a temporary work area created in the system memory when
a select SQL statement is executed.
§ This temporary work area is used to store the data retrieved from
the database, and manipulate this data.
§ It points to a certain location within a record set and allow the
operator to move forward (and sometimes backward, depending
upon the cursor type).
§ We can process only one record at a time.
§ The set of rows the cursor holds which is called the active set
(active data set).
§ Cursors are often criticized for their high overhead.
Types of cursor
§ There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL:
1. Implicit cursors:
• These are created by default by SQL itself when DML statements like, insert,
update, and delete statements are executed.
• They are also created when a SELECT statement returns just one row.
• We cannot use implicit cursors for user defined work.
2. Explicit cursors:
• Explicit cursors are user defined cursors written by the developer.
• They can be created when a SELECT statement returns more than one row.
• Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be
processed at a time, which is called as current row.
• When you fetch a row, the current row position moves to next row.
Steps to manage explicit cursor
1. Declare Cursor: A cursor is declared by defining the SQL
statement that returns a result set.
2. Open: A Cursor is opened and populated by executing the SQL
statement defined by the cursor.
3. Fetch: When the cursor is opened, rows can be fetched from the
cursor one by one or in a block to perform data manipulation.
4. Close: After data manipulation, close the cursor explicitly.
5. Deallocate: Finally, delete the cursor definition and release all
the system resources associated with the cursor.
Explicit cursor
§ An explicit cursor is defined in the declaration section of the
PL/SQL Block.
§ It is created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one
row. A suitable name for the cursor.
§ General syntax for creating a cursor:
CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;
• cursor_name – A suitable name for the cursor.
• select_statement – A select query which returns multiple rows
How to use explicit cursor?
§ There are four steps in using an Explicit Cursor.
1. DECLARE the cursor in the Declaration section.
2. OPEN the cursor in the Execution Section.
3. FETCH the data from the cursor into PL/SQL variables or records in the
Execution Section.
4. CLOSE the cursor in the Execution Section before you end the PL/SQL
Block.
Syntax of explicit cursor
DECLARE variables;
records;
create a cursor;
BEGIN
OPEN cursor;
FETCH cursor;
process the records;
CLOSE cursor;
END;
Example of cursor
§ Cursor to insert record from student table to student1 table if branch is CE.
DECLARE @rno int, @name varchar(50),@branch varchar(50);
DECLARE cursor_student CURSOR
FOR SELECT rno, name, branch FROM student;
OPEN cursor_student;
FETCH NEXT FROM cursor_student INTO @rno, @name, @branch;
WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0
BEGIN
IF (@branch='CE')
INSERT INTO student1 values (@rno, @name, @branch)
FETCH NEXT FROM cursor_student INTO @rno, @name, @branch;
END;
CLOSE cursor_student;
DEALLOCATE cursor_student;
Example of cursor
§ Cursor to update SPI (SPI=SPI-7) if SPI remains greater than or
equal to ZERO after update.
DECLARE
@rno int, @spi decimal(8,2);
DECLARE cursor_student CURSOR
FOR SELECT rno, spi FROM student;
OPEN cursor_student;
FETCH NEXT FROM cursor_student INTO @rno, @spi;
WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0
Example of cursor (Cont…)
§ Cursor to update SPI (SPI=SPI-7) if SPI remains greater than or
equal to ZERO after update.
BEGIN
set @spi=@spi-7
if (@spi<0)
print 'SPI must be greater than 0'
else
update student set spi=@spi where rno=@rno
FETCH NEXT FROM cursor_student INTO @rno, @spi;
END;
CLOSE cursor_student;
DEALLOCATE cursor_student;