YABELLO IFA BORU SPECIAL BOARDING

SECONDARY SCHOOL

PHYSICS SHORT NOTE

FOR GRADE 11

BY:
Wondimu Getachew
(2016 EC)
 UNIT-2: VECTORS

CONTENTS
1.1 Scalars and Vectors
1.2 Representation of Vectors
1.3 Types of Vectors
1.4 Resolution of Vectors
1.5 Addition/Subtraction of Vectors
1.6 Multiplication of Vectors
1.1 Scalars and Vectors
• Any number or sets of numbers used for a quantitative description
of a physical phenomenon is called a physical quantity.
• Physical quantities are any physical properties that can be
measured.
• All physical quantities are either vectors or scalars.
• Scalars are physical quantities described with only magnitude. They
are completely specified by a single value with an appropriate unit
and has no direction. A scalar quantities are completely specified by
a single value with an appropriate unit and has no direction.
• Some examples of scalars are:
▶ Mass, Distance, Speed, Time, Volume, Temperature, density, area · · ·
• To manipulate scalar quantities we use the ordinary rules of
arithmetic.
• Vectors are any physical quantities described with both magnitude
and direction. They are completely specified by a number with an
appropriate unit plus a direction. Magnitude of a vector is the size
(norm) of a value. A vector quantities are completely specified by a
number with an appropriate unit plus a direction.
• Some examples of vectors are:
▶ Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Momentum, Force,
Torque,Impulse, Magnetic field strength, Electric field strength ...
• Note that quantities with a sense of direction such as angles and
time are not vectors, because they do not obey the law of
parallelogram.
• Finite angles are physical quantities with a sense of direction
(clockwise or counterclockwise), but they are not vectors because
they violate the law of parallelogram.
• A physical quantity is a genuine vector if it adds to another vector
according to the law of parallelogram. That is true vectors obey the
law of parallelogram.
 1.2 Vector representations

• Vectors can be represented in two ways: graphically(geometrically)

and analytically(mathematically or algebraically)
• Graphically: vectors are represented by an arrow.
• The initial point of arrow is called tail and the final point of the
arrow is the head as it is indicated in Figure below.
• The length of the arrow represents the vector magnitude if it is drawn
in scale.
• The arrow head represents the vector direction.
 scaling vectors

• Recall that the length of the arrow drawn to represents the

magnitude and the tip of the arrow represents the direction of the
vector.
• When drawing diagrams with vectors, we use a scale similar to
those used for maps.
• For example:
• A displacement of 10km might be represented by a vector 1cm long
and displacement of 20km by a vector 2cm long.
• A velocity of 5m/s might be represented by a vector of 1cm and a
velocity of 40m/s by a vector of 8cm long.
• A force of 100N might be represented by a vector of 1cm and a force
of 500N by a vector of 5cm
Analytically: vectors are represented by a letter. There are many ways
of writing the symbol of a vector.
• Boldface letter:
F, v, a, p, s
• Letter with arrow above:
F⃗ , ⃗v , ⃗a, p⃗, ⃗s
• Letter with harpoon above:
⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
F, v , a, p, s
• Letter with over bar:
F̄ , pq, s̄
• Letter with hat above:
F̂ , v̂ , â, p̂, ŝ
Note: The ‘hat (ˆ)’ notation is mostly used to indicate the ‘unit vector’.
 Magnitude of Vectors

• Magnitude of a vector is, the size or norm of the vector.

• For example, a distance of S = 2.0km, which is a scalar quantity, is
denoted by 2.0 km, whereas a displacement of S⃗ = 2.0km in some
direction, which is a vector quantity, is denoted by S or S⃗ .
• The magnitude is also indicated by placing the absolute value
notation around the symbol that denotes the vector; so, you can
write equivalently that:
S ≡ |S|⃗
 Equality and Negative of Vectors
• Two vectors representing the same quantity are said to be equal if
their magnitudes are equal and they point in the same direction.
• This means that all vectors which are parallel to each other, which
have the same magnitude and point in the same direction are equal.
⃗ B
• Three vectors A, ⃗ and C⃗ shown in Figure below are equal.
• But D⃗ is not equal to A.
⃗ Vector D⃗ which has the same magnitude
⃗
as A but has opposite direction, is called negative of A⃗ or −A.
⃗
⃗
Thus, D = −A. ⃗
 Example
1. Find the negative of each of the following vectors.
a. displacement vector= 60km toward North
b. Velocity vector = 100km/h towards 20o southeast.
• Solution
• The negative of a vector has the same magnitude as the original
vector in opposite direction.
a. If S⃗ = 60km, toward North, then −S⃗ = 60km, toward South
b. S = 100km/h, toward 20o South of East, then −S⃗ = 100km/h,
toward 20o North of West.
 1.3 Types of Vectors
I. Position Vector
A position vector represents the position of an object in relation to
another object.
The description is accomplished by the use of coordinates.
The horizontal and vertical axes interest at a point defined as the
origin.

• The vector can be given in polar form.

Point B is 5km from point A, at an angle
of 370 above the horizontal. The angle is
measured from positive x-axis
anticlockwise. The angle can be in degrees
or radians.

⃗s = AB = (5km, 370 )
 The vector can also be given in component
form, where it is given in terms of the
components in the x, y and z directions.
The vector ⃗s is:

⃗s = AB = (4km, 3km)

The vector can be given in bearing angle

(figure). Point B is 5 km at 530 North East
of A. Alternatively this could be written as
B is 5 km from A on a bearing of 530 .
Remember that bearings are specified as an
angle going clockwise from north.
 II. Null(Zero) vector
Null vector is a vector with zero magnitude and any arbitrary
direction. The starting point (tail) of a vector coincides with the
terminal point (head) of the vector.
III. Collinear vectors
▶ Collinear vectors are vectors limited to only one dimension.
▶ Two vectors are col-linear if they are parallel or anti parallel and act
along the same line as shown in figure below.
▶ They can be in the same direction or opposite directions. A, ⃗ B ⃗ and D⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
are parallel, while C is anti-parallel (opposite) to A, B and D.⃗
IV. Coplanar vectors Coplanar vectors are vectors lying in the same
plane or parallel to the same plane.
This may include vectors at different angles to each other.
If the angle between two co-planar vectors is 900 , they are said to be
orthogonal(perpendicular).

• A more complex example

might involve three forces
⃗ B
acting on a cube (A, ⃗ and
⃗
C ).
 ⃗ and B
• A ⃗ are both in the same plane (the xy plane) so they might be
described as coplanar. C⃗ is in a different plane and so is not
coplanar.
⃗ and C⃗ are in the same plane (the xz plane) so they might be
• B
described as coplanar. A ⃗ is in a different plane and so is not
coplanar.
⃗ and C⃗ are in the same plane (the yz plane) so they might be
• A
described as coplanar. B ⃗ is in a different plane and so is not
coplanar.
⃗ B
• A, ⃗ and C⃗ cannot be considered to be coplanar with each other as
they are in different planes.
V. Concurrent Vectors: are vectors that all pass through the same
point.
VI. Unit Vectors
A convenient way of analyzing vectors is first to describe them in
terms of unit vectors.
A unit vector is a vector of magnitude only one unit.

Unit vector is denoted bay: Â.

Then the magnitude of the unit vector is |Â| = 1
⃗ is given by:
A unit vector in the direction of any vector A
⃗
A
 =
⃗
|A|
⃗ in terms of its magnitude and parallel
we can write any vector A
unit vector:
A⃗ = |A|
⃗ Â
• The basic unit vectors in Cartesian(rectangular) co-ordinate are:

ˆ unit vector which indicates x-axis.

• i:
ˆ unit vector which indicates y-axis.
• j:
• k̂: unit vector which indicates z-axis.
ˆ = |j|
• |i| ˆ = |k̂| = 1
ˆ jˆ and k̂ are mutually
• Note: the three basic unit vectors i,
perpendicular, that is the angle between each of them is always 900 .
• Suppose we have a vector A ⃗ in Cartesian co-ordinate as:

⃗ = Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + Az k̂ = (Ax , Ay , Az )
A

⃗ along x-axis.
Ax : component of A
⃗ along y-axis.
Ay : component of A
⃗ along z-axis.
Az : component of A
q
• The magnitude of A⃗ is: |A|
⃗ = A2 + A2 + A2
x y z
• The unit vector  in 2D is:
⃗
A Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ
 = =q
⃗
|A| A2x + A2y
• The unit vector  in 3D is:
⃗
A Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + +Az k̂
 = = q
⃗
|A| A2x + A2y + A2z

Show that |Â| = 1

Example
⃗ = 3iˆ + 4jˆ
1. Find the unit vector of Aq √ √
The Magnitude of |A|⃗ = A2 + A2 = 32 + 42 = 25 = 5
x y
⃗
A
The unit vector of  = ⃗
|A|

3iˆ + 4jˆ 1 ˆ ˆ = 3 iˆ + 4 jˆ
 = = (3i + 4j)
5 5 5 5
• The magnitude of the unit vector |Â| is
s 
3 2
 2 r
4 25
|Â| = + = =1
5 5 25

2. Given force vector F⃗ = (12iˆ − 16j)N,

ˆ what is a unit vector along F⃗ ?
 Exercise

• Find the unit vector of the following vectors, and show that the
magnitude of the unit vector is one.
a. B⃗ = 2iˆ + jˆ
b. C⃗ = (6, 8)
c. D⃗ = 2iˆ − 2jˆ
d. E⃗ = −9iˆ + 12jˆ
e. F⃗ = (12, −16)
f. G⃗ = 3iˆ + 4jˆ + 5k̂
g. H⃗ = 4iˆ − jˆ + 2k̂
 1.4 Resolution (Decomposition) of a vector
• A single vector can be broken down into a number of vectors when
added give the original vector. These vectors which sum to the
original are called components of the original vector.
• The process of breaking a vector into its components is called
resolving/decomposing into components.
• Decomposition (resolving) is, the general process of breaking one
vector into two or more vectors that add up to the original vector.
• Placing vectors in a coordinate system that you have chosen makes
it possible to decompose them into components along each of the
chosen coordinate axes.

• In the rectangular coordinate system shown

in Figure, vector A⃗ is broken up or resolved
into two component vectors.
• One,Ax , is parallel to the x-axis, and the
other, Ay , is parallel to the y-axis.
 • The horizontal and vertical components can be found by two
methods: graphical method and simple trigonometry. Let us look at
them one by one.
a) Graphical method of vector resolution:
• The following are the steps that you follow to resolve a vector
graphically.
1. Select a scale and draw the vector to scale in the appropriate direction.
2. Extend x- and y-axes from the tail of the vector to the entire length of the
vector and beyond.
3. From the arrow head of the vector, construct perpendicular projections to
the x- and the y-axes.
4. Draw the x-component from the tail of the vector to the intersection of the
perpendicular projection with the x-axis. Label this component asAx.
5. Draw the y-component from the tail of the vector to the intersection of the
perpendicular projection with the y-axis. Label this component asAy.
6. Measure the length of the two components and use the scale to determine
the magnitude of the components.
 b) Trigonometric method of vector resolution:
• The trigonometric method of vector resolution relies on an
understanding of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions. You can
find the components by using trigonometry.
• The components are calculated according to these equations, where
the angle θ is measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis.

adj Ax ⃗ cos θ
cos θ = = =⇒ Ax = |A|
hyp ⃗
|A|
opp Ay ⃗ sin θ
sin θ = = =⇒ Ay = |A|
hyp ⃗
|A|
• You can see that the original vector is the sum of the two
component vectors.
⃗=A
A ⃗x + A
⃗y = Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ
• Because Ax and Ay are at a right angle (90o ), the magnitude of the
resultant vector can be calculated using the Pythagorean Theorem.
q
⃗ = A2 + A2
|A| x y

• To find the angle or direction of the resultant, recall that the

tangent of the angle that the vector makes with the x-axis is given
by the following.
 
opp Ay −1 Ay
tan θ = = =⇒ θ = tan
adj Ax Ax
• If both Ax and Ay are positive numbers, angle θ is above the
positive (+x) axis.
• If AX is negative number and Ay is positive number, angle θ is
above the negative (-x) axis.
• If both Ax and Ay are negative numbers, angle θ is below the
negative (-x) axis.
• If Ax is positive number and Ay is negative number, angle θ is below
the positive (+x) axis.
 Example
1. A motorist undergoes a displacement of
250km in a direction 300 North of East.
Resolve this displacement into its
components.
2. A boy walks 3km due East and then 2km due North. What is the
magnitude and direction of his displacement vector?
Solution

1. S⃗N = 250km sin(300 ) ⃗ = (3km)2 + (2km)2

p
2. |S|
= 125km = 3.6km

S⃗E = 250km cos(300 ) θ = tan−1 3km
2km
= 33.690
= 216.5km
S⃗ = (SE , SN )
= (216.5, 125)km
 Exercise

1. A ball is shot at an angle of 300 with the horizontal. If the initial

velocity of the ball has magnitude of 50m/s, find its horizontal (x)
and vertical (y) components of the velocity.
2. Find the magnitude and the direction of each of the following vectors

3. Draw simple vector diagrams and resolve them into their

components.
a. 40N at an angle of 300 from the horizontal.
b. 10m/s at an angle of 800 from the horizontal.
c. 1900km at an angle of 400 from the vertical.
4. A car travels 10km due North and then 5km due West. Find
graphically and analytically the magnitude and direction of the car’s
resultant vector.
5. A girl walks 25.00 North of East for 3.10km. How far would she
have to walk due North and due East to arrive at the same location?
6. A force vector of magnitude of 35 N is pushing on a box placed on
the horizontal ground as shown in Figure below. If the force makes
an angle of 40o above the negative x axis, what are the x and y
components of the force?
 c. Resolution of 3D Vectors
⃗ drawn in space (x,y,z)
• Consider vector A
coordinate, which makes angle α with x-axis, β
with y-axis and γ with z- axis.
• Ax is component of A⃗ along x-axis.
• Ay is component of A⃗ along y-axis.
⃗ along z-axis.
• Az is component of A
• Therefore;
⃗ cos α, Ay = |A|
• Ax = |A| ⃗ cos β and Az = |A|
⃗ cos γ
Ax Ay Az
• cos α = ⃗ , cos β = ⃗ and cos γ = ⃗ are called directional cosines.
|A| |A| |A|

⃗ = Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + Az k̂ = (|A|
A ⃗ cos α)iˆ + (|A|
⃗ cos β)jˆ + (|A|
⃗ cos γ)k̂

⃗ is:
• The magnitude of vector A
q
⃗ =
|A| A2x + A2y + A2z

• Show That: cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

⇒ If the vector A⃗ is makes an angle θ with
⃗ sin θ makes an
z-axis and its projection |A|
angle ϕ with x-axis, the the resolution of
the vector carried out as follows.
• Ax is component of A ⃗ along x-axis.
• Ay is component of A ⃗ along y-axis.
• Az is component of A⃗ along z-axis.
• Therefore;
⃗ sin θ cos ϕ, Ay = |A|
• Ax = |A| ⃗ sin θ sin ϕ and Az = |A|
⃗ cos θ

⃗ = Ax i+A
A ˆ y j+A ⃗ sin θ cos ϕ)i+(|
ˆ z k̂ = (|A| ˆ A| ⃗ sin θ sin ϕ)j+(|
ˆ A| ⃗ cos θ)k̂

⃗ is:
• The magnitude of vector A
q
⃗
|A| = A2x + A2y + A2z

• Show That: sin2 θ cos2 ϕ + sin2 θ sin2 ϕ + cos2 θ = 1

 1.5 Vectors Addition and Subtraction
• Different mathematical operations can be performed with vectors, so
you need to understand the mathematical properties of vectors, like
addition and subtraction.
• When you add vectors, you need to add both a magnitude and a
direction.
• The resultant of a number of vectors is the single vector whose
effect is the same as the individual vectors acting together. In other
words, the individual vectors can be replaced by the resultant where
the overall effect is the same.
• You should remember that only vectors of the same kind can be
added. For example, two forces or two velocities can be added. But
a force and a velocity cannot be added.
• Generally, scalars and vectors can never be added. For any two
vectors to be added, they must be of the same nature(type).
• Addition/Subtraction of vector can be carried out in three (3) ways.
I. Graphically, II. analytically and III. in component.
I. Adding/Subtracting Vectors geometrically(graphically)
• Using the graphical method of vector addition, vectors are drawn to
scale and the magnitude and the direction of the resultant vector is
determined using a ruler and protractor.
• We next discuss the primary graphical techniques: the triangle
method, the parallelogram method, and the polygon method.
• Procedure for using graphical method of vector addition
• Decide on an appropriate scale. Record it on the diagram.
• Pick a starting point.
• Draw first vector with appropriate length and in the indicated
direction.
• Draw the second and remaining vectors with appropriate length and
direction.
• Draw the resultant based on the specific rule you are using.
• Measure the length of the resultant; use the scale to convert to the
magnitude of the resultant.
• Use a protractor to measure the vector’s direction.
 a. Triangle method of vectors addition/Subtraction

• Triangle law of vector addition is used to find the sum of two

vectors. This law is used to add two vectors when the first vector’s
head is joined to the tail of the second vector and then joining the
tail of the first vector to the head of the second vector to form a
triangle, and hence obtain the resultant sum vector. That’s why the
triangle law of vector addition is also called the head-to-tail
method for the addition of vectors.
• Thus, if two vectors acting simultaneously on a body are represented
both in magnitude and direction by two sides of a triangle taken in
an order then the resultant sum vector (both magnitude and
direction) of these two vectors is given by the third side of that
triangle taken in the opposite order. This is the statement for the
triangle law of vector addition.
• Consider two vectors A ⃗ and B⃗ shown in Figure (a). To add these
two vectors using the triangle method, the head of vector A ⃗ should
be joined to the tail of vector B ⃗ . Then, the resultant vector R
⃗ has
⃗
its tail at the tail of A (the first vector) and its head at the head of
B⃗ (the second vector) as shown in Figure (b). Or the resultant R ⃗ is
obtained by joining the tail of the first vector to the head of the
second vector (the missing side of the triangle).
• Figure below (b) and (c) show that vector addition is commutative.
For any two vectors,
A⃗+B ⃗ =B ⃗ +A ⃗
• If the vectors are perpendicular, the triangle will be a right-angled
triangle.
• If the vectors are still coplanar but not perpendicular the triangle
will not be a right-angled triangle.
⇒ Subtraction
• We can subtract vectors as well add them. Recall that vector −B ⃗
⃗
has the same magnitude as B but the opposite direction.
• Subtracting a vector is the same as adding a vector of the same
magnitude but opposite in direction.
• We define the difference A⃗−B ⃗ of the two vectors A
⃗ and B
⃗ to be
⃗
the vector sum of A and −B. ⃗

C⃗ = A
⃗−B
⃗ =A
⃗ + (−B)
⃗ and ⃗ =B
D ⃗ −A
⃗=B
⃗ + (−A)
⃗
⃗−B
• A ⃗ = −(B
⃗ − A)
⃗ not commutative.
b. Parallelogram Method of Vectors Addition/Subtraction

• If you have two coplanar vectors, you could use the parallelogram
rule. This involves drawing the two vectors with the same starting
point (place both vectors with their tails joined or tail-to- tail).
• The two vectors must be drawn to a scale and are made to be the
sides of the parallelogram (Construct a parallelogram taking the two
vectors as the two adjacent sides). The resultant will be the
diagonal of the parallelogram.
• Thus, if two vectors are represented by the two adjacent sides (both
in magnitude and direction) of a parallelogram drawn from a point,
then their resultant vector is represented completely by the diagonal
of the parallelogram drawn from the same point. This is the
statement for the parallelogram law of vector addition
• Suppose two vectors A ⃗ and B⃗ are at arbitrary positions as shown in
Figure. Translate either one of them in parallel to the beginning of
the other vector, so that after the translation, both vectors have
their origins at the same point.
• Now, at the end of vector A ⃗ you draw a line parallel to vector B
⃗ and
at the end of vector B ⃗ you draw a line parallel to vector A
⃗ (the
dashed lines). In this way, you obtain a parallelogram.
• From the origin of the two vectors, you draw a diagonal of the
parallelogram as shown in Figure. The diagonal is the resultant C⃗ of
the two vectors. Thus,
C⃗ = A
⃗+B
⃗ =B
⃗ +A
⃗ commutative
• If the vectors are perpendicular, the parallelogram will always be a
rectangle.
• If the vectors are still coplanar but not perpendicular, the
parallelogram will not be a rectangle.
⇒ Subtraction
• We can subtract vectors as well add them. Recall that vector −B ⃗
⃗
has the same magnitude as B but the opposite direction.
• Subtracting a vector is the same as adding a vector of the same
magnitude but opposite in direction.
• We define the difference A⃗−B ⃗ of the two vectors A
⃗ and B
⃗ to be
the vector sum of A⃗ and −B.⃗

⃗ =A
R ⃗−B
⃗ =A
⃗ + (−B)
⃗ and ⃗ =B
P ⃗ −A
⃗=B
⃗ + (−A)
⃗

⃗−B
A ⃗ = −(B
⃗ − A)
⃗ not commutative
c. Polygon method of Vectors Addition/Subtraction

• Tail-to-head method applied to more than two vectors is called

Polygonal Method.
• When we need to add more than two vectors, we may start with one
of the vectors and then place the tail of the next vector to the head
of the first and do the same until all the vectors are included.
• The vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the
last vector represents the resultant. This is known as the polygon
method of vector addition.
• You can start from any one of the given vectors. That is the order in
which the vectors are added does not change both the magnitude
and direction of the resultant vector.
• If there is a gap b/n the tail of the first vector and the head of the
last vector, then there must be a resultant vector.
⃗ =A
R ⃗+B
⃗ + C⃗ + D
⃗ = C⃗ + B
⃗ +D
⃗ +A
⃗=B
⃗ +D
⃗ + C⃗ + A
⃗=D
⃗ + C⃗ + B
⃗ +A
⃗
• If we end up where we started, then all the vectors canceled out and
there is no resultant vector.
⇒ Subtraction
• Take the following four vectors
 II. Adding/Subtracting Vectors Analytically (Algebraically)

• Method of adding or subtracting vectors using some mathematical

algebraic equations is called Analytical method.
• There are three special cases to consider.
a. When the two vectors are in the same direction (Parallel)

• The magnitude of the resultant is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of

the two vectors.(This is the maximum possible magnitude of the
resultant of the two vectors).
b. When the two vectors are in the opposite direction (anti-parallel)

• The magnitude of their sum (resultant) is equal to the difference in

their magnitude (It is the minimum). The direction of C⃗ is the
direction of the larger one.
c. When the two vectors are perpendiculars (Orthogonal)
Geometrically

• Analytically: the magnitude of the resultant can be found using

Pythagoras’s theorem. |C |2 = |A|2 + |B|2
The direction of the resultant can be found using a trigonometric
relation  
−1 |B|
θ = tan
|A|
 Example

1. Find the resultant of 8N and 6N force vectors if:

a) they are parallel vectors.
b) they are anti-parallel vectors
c) they are perpendicular vectors

Solution
a. If parallel |F | = |F1 | + |F2 | = 8N + 6N = 14N
b. If anti-parallel |F | = |F1 | − |F2 | = 8N − 6N = 2N
c. If perpendicular
p p √
|F | = |F1 |2 + |F2 |2 = (8N)2 + (6N)2 = 100N 2 = 10N

2. Add the following vectors

⃗ = 50N to North and B
a) A ⃗ = 35N to North
⃗ = 80N to West and B
b) A ⃗ = 50N to East
Solution
⃗ =A
a) R ⃗+B ⃗ = 50N North + 35N North = 85N North
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ = 80N West − 50N East = 30N West
b) R = A − B

3. Add the vectors A⃗ = 15N to East B⃗ = 20N to North

a) Use Pythagoras’s theorem to determine the magnitude of the resultant
of these vectors.
b) Use Trigonometric ratios to determine the direction of the resultant of
these vectors.
Solutionq
√
⃗ = |A|⃗ 2 + |B|
⃗ 2 = (15N)2 + (20N)2 = 625 = 25N
p
a) R
b) θ = tan−1 ( |B| −1 20 −1 4 0
|A| ) = tan ( 15 ) = tan ( 3 ) = 53 North of East
4. A man rows his boat along the direction of flow of a river
(downstream). If the boat can sail in still water at 0.50 m/s, and the
river flows at 0.30 m/s, what is the resultant velocity of the boat?
Solution
• Let the magnitude of velocity of the river be ⃗vr and that of the boat
be ⃗vb .
⃗vr = 0.30m/s and ⃗vb = 0.50m/s
• The resultant velocity is ⃗vR = ⃗vr + ⃗vb Since both vectors are along
the same direction, the magnitude of the resultant velocity is given
by:

⃗vR = ⃗vr + ⃗vb = 0.3m/s + 0.5m/s = 0.8m/s

• The direction of the resultant is along the direction of the river flow.
• Therefore, the resultant velocity is:
⃗vR = 0.8m/s, downstream.
5. Two men are pushing a block along a horizontal
surface by exerting oppositely directed forces of
magnitudes 200 N and 100 N respectively, as
shown in Figure. What is the resultant force
applied on the block by the two men?
• Solution
• The two men applied two different forces on the same block.
• Let the magnitude of the force exerted by the man on the right be
F⃗1 = 200N and that of the man on the left be F⃗2 = 100N.
• The magnitude of the resultant force is
F⃗R = F⃗1 + F⃗2 = −200N + 100N = −100N
• The direction of the resultant is along the direction of the 200 N
(larger) force.
• F⃗R = 100N, toward the left.
6. An ant, starting at a point, walked through a distance of 40 cm due
South and then 50 cm due West. What is the resultant
displacement of the ant from its starting point?
• Solution
• The two displacements are perpendicular, using Pythagorean
theorem, the magnitude of the resultant displacement is:
q √
⃗ = S 2 + S 2 = (40cm)2 + (50cm)2 = 4100cm2 = 64cm
p
• |S| 1 2
• Direction of the resultant displacement is shown by the angle θ,
where
• θ = tan−1 40 −1 0


50 = tan (0.8) = 38.6
• Therefore = 64cm, 38.6o m South of West
 d. Cosine Law and Sine Rule
• To add coplanar vectors we use more complex mathematics. Since
two perpendicular coplanar vectors form a right angled triangle, they
can be added using Pythagoras’s theorem and trigonometry.
• Pythagoras’s theorem determines the magnitude of resultant vector
while trigonometry is used to determine its direction.
• However; if the two co-planar vector are not perpendicular to each
other, we can no longer use Pythagorean to add them analytically.
Here we use the generalized form of the Pythagorean which is called
cosine law and sine rule.
• To begin with consider two co-planar vectors A ⃗ and B,
⃗
• Using Pythagoras theorem

⃗ 2 = (|A|
|R| ⃗ + |C⃗ |)2 + |D|
⃗ 2

⃗ 2 = |A|
|R| ⃗ 2 + |C⃗ |2 + 2|A||
⃗ C⃗ | + |D|
⃗ 2
• Substitute C⃗ and D⃗ in terms of B⃗
• |C⃗ | = |B|
⃗ cos θ and |D|
⃗ = |B|
⃗ sin θ

⃗ 2 = |A|
|R| ⃗ 2 + |B|
⃗ 2 cos2 θ + 2|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos θ + |B|
⃗ 2 sin2 θ

⃗ 2 = |A|
|R| ⃗ 2 + |B|
⃗ 2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) + 2|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos θ
• Since; cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

⃗ 2 = |A|
|R| ⃗ 2 + |B|
⃗ 2 + 2|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos θ

q
⃗ =
|R| ⃗ 2 + |B|
|A| ⃗ 2 + 2|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos θ
⇒ Cosine Law
⃗ =A
• Since R ⃗+B⃗ =⇒ |R|⃗ = |A
⃗ + B|
⃗
q
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 2 + |B|
|A + B| = |A| ⃗ 2 + 2|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos θ
• Similarly q
⃗ − B|
|A ⃗ = ⃗ 2 + |B|
|A| ⃗ 2 − 2|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos θ

⇒ Sine Rule
• The ratio of the sine of an angle to the opposite side is constant.

sin α sin β sin γ

= =
⃗
|B| ⃗
|R| ⃗
|A|
 Example
⃗ is 5 m along horizontal and B
• Consider two vectors A ⃗ is 6 m at an
angle of 60° above the horizontal. Find the magnitude and the
⃗+B
direction of A ⃗
• Solution
• First draw the vectors

q
⃗ = |A|
|R| ⃗ 2 + |B|
⃗ 2 + 2|A||
⃗ B|
⃗ cos θ
p
= 52 + 62 + 2(5)(6) cos 600 = 9.54m
⃗ sin β ) = 5m(sin 120) = 0.545
• sin α = |B|( ⃗
|R| 9.54m
−1
• α = sin (0.545) = 330 above the horizontal.
 III. Adding/Subtracting Vectors in Components

• Suppose two vectors A ⃗ = Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + Az k̂ and

⃗ = Bx iˆ + By jˆ + Bz k̂, then:
B

⃗+B
A ⃗ = (Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + Az k̂) + (Bx iˆ + By jˆ + Bz k̂)

= (Ax + Bx )iˆ + (Ay + By )jˆ + (Az + B + z)k̂

⃗−B
A ⃗ = (Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + Az k̂) − (Bx iˆ + By jˆ + Bz k̂)

= (Ax − Bx )iˆ + (Ay − By )jˆ + (Az − Bz )k̂

• Generally:

⃗±B
A ⃗ = (Ax ± Bx )iˆ + (Ay ± By )jˆ + (Az ± Bz )k̂
 Example

⃗ = 2iˆ + 3jˆ − 6k̂ and B

1. Two vectors A ⃗ = 5iˆ + jˆ + 4k̂
⃗+B
• A ⃗ = (2 + 5)iˆ + (3 + 1)jˆ + (−6 + 4)k̂ = 7iˆ + 4jˆ − 2k̂
⃗ +A
• B ⃗ = (5 + 2)iˆ + (1 + 3)jˆ + (4 − 6)k̂ = 7iˆ + 4jˆ − 2k̂

⃗+B
A ⃗ =B
⃗ +A
⃗

⃗−B
• A ⃗ = (2 − 5)iˆ + (3 − 1)jˆ + (−6 − 4)k̂ = −3iˆ + 2jˆ − 10k̂
⃗ −A
• B ⃗ = (5 − 2)iˆ + (1 − 3)jˆ + (4 − (−6))k̂ = 3iˆ − 2jˆ + 10k̂

⃗−B
A ⃗ = −(B
⃗ − A)
⃗
2. Given vectors
⃗ = 5iˆ + j,
A ˆ B⃗ = 3iˆ − 4jˆ
⃗ ˆ
C = −12i + 6j, ⃗ = −2iˆ − 3jˆ
ˆ D
Find
⃗ + B,
a) A ⃗ b) B⃗ +A ⃗
c) C − D, d) D − C⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ + 3B,
e) A ⃗ f) A⃗+B ⃗ + C⃗ + D
⃗

Solution
a) A⃗+B ⃗ = (5iˆ + j)
ˆ + (3iˆ − 4j)
ˆ = (5 + 3)iˆ + (1 − 4)jˆ = 8iˆ − 3jˆ
b)B⃗ +A⃗ = (3iˆ − 4j)
ˆ + (5iˆ + j)
ˆ = (3 + 5)iˆ + (−4 + 1)jˆ = 8iˆ − 3jˆ
⃗ ⃗
c) C − D = (−12i + 6j) − (−2iˆ − 3j)
ˆ ˆ ˆ =
(−12 − (−2))iˆ + (6 − (−3))jˆ = −10iˆ + 9jˆ
d) D⃗ − C⃗ = (−2iˆ − 3j)
ˆ − (−12iˆ + 6j)ˆ =
(−2 − (−12))i + (−3 − 6)j = 10i − 9jˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ
3. On a certain day, a student goes to school by first walking 2.0km
45.00 north of east from her home to her ant‘s home to drop a
message. Then she walks 0.8km in a direction 60.00 south of east
where her school is located.
(a) Determine the components of the student’s displacements in the
first and second parts of her walk.
(b) Determine the components of her total displacement for the trip
from home to school.

Solution
⃗ and B
Let A ⃗ be the first and second displacements. Their
components are:
⃗ cos θA = 2.0km cos 450 = 2.0kmX 0.707 = 1.4km
Ax = |A|
⃗ sin θA = 2.0km cos 450 = 2.0kmX 0.707 = 1.4km
Ay = |A|
⃗ cos θB = 0.8km cos(−60)0 = 0.8kmX 0.5 = 0.4km
Bx = |B|
⃗ sin θB = 0.8km sin(−60)0 = 0.8kmX (−0.866) = −0.69km
By = |B|
 ⃗ = 3iˆ + 4j,
4. Given three vectors A ⃗ = −3iˆ + jˆ and C⃗ = iˆ − 2j.
ˆ B ˆ
Assume all the vectors starts from origin.
a) Show the three vectors in the xy coordinate system.
b) Find A⃗ + C⃗ and A
⃗−B ⃗ + 3C⃗
⃗ such that D
c) Find the vector D ⃗ +B⃗ − C⃗ = 0

Solution
a)
 ⃗ + C⃗ = (3iˆ + 4j)
b. A ˆ + (iˆ − 2j)
ˆ = 4iˆ + 2jˆ

⃗−B
A ⃗ + 3C⃗ = (3iˆ + 4j)
ˆ − (−3iˆ + j)
ˆ + 3(iˆ − 2j)
ˆ = 9iˆ − 3jˆ
⃗ +B
c. D ⃗ − C⃗ = 0 =⇒ D
⃗ = C⃗ − B
⃗ = (iˆ− 2j) ⃗ = −3iˆ+ j)
ˆ − (B ˆ = 4iˆ− 3jˆ
5. Nishan and Melesse are trying to drag a box. Nishan is using a force
of (15, 8, 6) N and Melesse is using a force of (12, 10, –6) N. what
is the resultant force on the box?
6. Consider two displacement vectors A ⃗ and B⃗ of magnitudes 100 m
and 200m respectively, Figure below. Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant displacement vector.
7. A girl walked across a large field through the following distance in
the given order:72 m toward 32o East of North, 57 m toward 37o
South of West, 18 m toward South. Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant displacement of the girl?

8. Vector A⃗ has x and y components of 4 units and 2 units,

⃗ has the corresponding components of -9
respectively and vector B
units and 3 units respectively. Find
(a) the vector components of their resultant,
(b) the magnitude and direction of their resultant.
 9. An unknown vector D ⃗ is added to vector C⃗ = (−4iˆ + 5j)units
ˆ and
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
the resultant R = C + D has x and y components of each -1 and 1
units, respectively. Find the magnitude of the unknown vector D. ⃗
10. A farmer is ploughing the field using traditional Maresha (plow)
pulled by two oxen Figure (a). The two animals are pulling the
beam (Mofer) with a force F⃗2 of 1200 N at angle of 40o from the
horizontal and the farmer’s force F⃗1 on the handle (Erf) is 150 N at
60o above the horizontal as shown in Figure (b). Find the resultant
horizontal pulling force exerted by the farmer and the oxen on the
Maresha? At this point assume all the forces are acting at point K.
For the whole system to work the resultant downward vertical force
must be slightly greater than the upward. Explain why.
• The Addition/Subtraction of vectors has an application in
equilibrium of a system.
• Equilibrium is a state of balance where there are no resulting forces
acting on a body.
• When there is no resultant force acting on an object it is said to be
in equilibrium.
• This is easy to imagine in one dimension.

• The sum of the forces to the left is 12 N. The sum of the forces to
the right is 12 N (you could say –12 N). Adding these together gives
a resultant of 0 N. This object is in equilibrium, there is no resultant
force acting on it.
• In two dimensions when a body is in equilibrium, all the horizontal
forces (those in the x direction) must add up to equal zero. This can
be written as: X
Fx = 0
• The same is true for the vertical forces (those in the y direction).
This can be written as: X
Fy = 0
• Equilibrium can also be determined by drawing force vectors, if we
end up where we started then all the forces cancel out and there is
no resultant force.
• The box pulled by Chaltu, Biruk and
Abrehet is in equilibrium. This means that:

F⃗A + F⃗B + F⃗C = 0

• The sum of the forces exerted by Abrehet

and Biruk is balances the force exerted by
Chaltu
F⃗A + F⃗B = −F⃗C
• The sum of the forces exerted by Biruk and Chaltu is balances the
force exerted by Abrehet

F⃗B + F⃗C = −F⃗A

• The sum of the forces exerted by Chaltu and Abrehet is balances the
force exerted by Biruk.

F⃗C + F⃗A = −F⃗B

 Example
1. Show that the following forces are in equilibrium or not

2. Three forces are acting on an object

(Figure below) which is in equilibrium.
Determine force A.
⇒ Equilibrant force
• A system of forces not in equilibrium can be put in equilibrium by
adding a force equal in magnitude to their resultant force in the
opposite direction.
• The force applied to the system to cancel out the resultant force is
called quilibrant force.
• Generally, if two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in
directions, each force is the equilibrant of the other.
• Example Find the equilibrant force to keep the following system in
equilibrium.
 1.6 Vectors Multiplication
• We can carry out the multiplication of vectors in three ways.
I. Scalar multiplication
⃗ is multiplied by a
• This involves multiplying a vector by scalar. If vector A
positive scalar quantity m, the product mA ⃗ is a vector that has the same
⃗
direction as A and magnitude mA.
• For example, the vector 5A⃗ is five times as long as A⃗ and points in the
⃗
same direction as A.
⃗ is multiplied by a negative scalar quantity −m,the product
• If vector A
⃗
−mA is directed opposite A. ⃗
1⃗ ⃗ and points in
For example the vector − 3 A is one-third the length of A
⃗
the direction opposite A.
• The scalar multiplication of vectors helps us to calculate the quantities
like momentum and force.

F⃗ = m⃗a and p⃗ = m⃗v

 Example

1. Vector ⃗a, which has a magnitude of 5 at an angle of 53° to the

x-direction.
a. Calculate the magnitude and direction of 2⃗a
b. Resolve ⃗a into its components and draw both ⃗a and 2⃗a on the same
coordinate.
c. Calculate the magnitude and direction of −2⃗a
d. Draw both ⃗a and −2⃗a on the same coordinate.
2. Displacement vector given as S⃗ = 35km, towards 60o North of east.
Find the magnitude direction of:
a) 1.2S⃗ and b) −1.2S⃗ ?
 II. Scalar Product
• This involves two vectors multiplied together and gives us a scalar.
It also called dot product(inner product).

• The scalar product of two vectors is

defined as:
⃗·B
A ⃗ = |A||
⃗ B|cosθ
⃗

A⃗·B
⃗ reads as vector A ⃗ dot vector B.
⃗
⃗ and |B|
• where: |A| ⃗ are the magnitudes of the vectors A
⃗ and B,
⃗ and
θ is the smaller angle between the vectors A⃗ and B,
⃗ which is
measured when the vectors are drawn from the same starting
point(tail-to-tail).
• The scalar(dot) product of basic unit vectors are:

ˆ = |j|
|i| ˆ = |k̂| = 1 unit vectors.
 ˆ jˆ and k̂ are mutually perpendicular(orthogonal) So:
• i,

iˆ · iˆ = |i||
ˆ i|cosθ
ˆ = 1 · 1cos(00 ) = 1

iˆ · jˆ = |i||
ˆ j|cosθ
ˆ = 1 · 1cos(900 ) = 0
iˆ · k̂ = |i||
ˆ k̂|cosθ = 1 · 1cos(900 ) = 0
• Similarly:
iˆ · iˆ = jˆ · jˆ = k̂ · k̂ = 1
i · j = i · k̂ = jˆ · iˆ = jˆ · k̂ = k̂ · iˆ = k̂ · jˆ = 0
ˆ ˆ ˆ
• When the vectors are given in component form the dot product is
⃗ = Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + Az k̂ and
manipulated as follows. For a given vectors A
⃗ ˆ ˆ
B = Bx i + By j + Bz k̂

⃗·B
A ⃗ = (Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + Az k̂) · (Bx iˆ + By jˆ + Bz k̂)

= Ax iˆ · Bx iˆ + Ax iˆ · By jˆ + Ax iˆ · Bz k̂
+Ay jˆ · Bx iˆ + Ay jˆ · By jˆ + Ay jˆ · Bz k̂
+Az jˆ · Bx iˆ + Az jˆ · By jˆ + Az jˆ · Bz k̂
= Ax Bx (iˆ · i)
ˆ + Ax By (iˆ · j)
ˆ + Ax Bz (iˆ · k̂)

+Ay Bx (jˆ · i)
ˆ + Ay By (jˆ · j)
ˆ + Ay Bz (jˆ · k̂)
ˆ + Az By (k̂ · j)
+Az Bx (k̂ · i) ˆ + Az Bz (k̂ · k̂)

= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
Therefore: A ⃗·B⃗ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
⃗·B
• A ⃗ =B⃗ ·A ⃗ Commutative.
⃗ · (B
• A ⃗ + C⃗ ) = A⃗·B
⃗ +A ⃗ · C⃗ Distributive. SHOW!
 ⇒ The applications of Scalar product are:
• To find the angle between two vectors
• To calculate the Work done by force
• To Calculate Power
• To find the Scalar projection of one vector onto another
• To test whether the given two vectors are Orthogonal or not.

a. Finding an angle between the two vectors

• We know that the scalar product of two vectors is given by:

⃗·B
A ⃗ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos θ

• Where; θ is the smaller angle between the vectors A⃗ and B,⃗ when
they are drawn from the same starting point (tail-to-tail).
• Then the angle θ can be calculated as:
!
⃗·B
A ⃗ ⃗·B
A ⃗
cos θ = =⇒ θ = cos−1
⃗ B|
|A|| ⃗ ⃗ B|
|A|| ⃗
b. Calculating the work done by force
• We know that work done by force is the product of both force and
displacement.
• Force F⃗ and displacement ⃗s are vectors, while work W is scalar.
• Therefore the product of the force and displacement which produce
work must be the scalar product.

W = F⃗ · ⃗s = |F⃗ ||⃗s | cos θ = Fx sx + Fy sy + Fz sz

c. Calculating power
• In physics power is the rate at which work has done. Its scalar.

W F⃗ · ⃗s
P= = = F⃗ · ⃗v = Fx vx + Fy vy + Fz vz
t t
d. Scalar Projection
• The scalar projection of one vector onto another is, the component
of one vector which is along the other vector.
• For two vectors A⃗ and B:
⃗
• The scalar projection of A⃗ onto B
⃗ is the component of A ⃗ which is
⃗
along B. Its is given as:

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
PA⃗B⃗ = A ⃗ · B = A · B = |A||B|cosθ = |A|
⃗ · B̂ = A ⃗ cos θ
⃗
|B| ⃗
|B| ⃗
|B|

⃗ onto A
• Similarly, The scalar projection of B ⃗ is the component of B
⃗
⃗ Its is given as:
which is along A.

⃗
A ⃗ ·A
B ⃗ ⃗ A|cosθ
|B|| ⃗
⃗ · Â = B
PB⃗ A⃗ = B ⃗· = = ⃗ cos θ
= |B|
⃗
|A| ⃗
|A| ⃗
|A|
e. Orthogonality test
• This is to check whether the given two vectors are
orthogonal(perpendicular) or not.
• For two vectors A⃗ and B
⃗ to be orthogonal, the angle between them
must be 90 .0

• Then the scalar product of them is:

⃗·B
A ⃗ = |A||
⃗ B|cosθ
⃗ ⃗ B|cos90
= |A|| ⃗ 0
=0

• Therefore; if the scalar product of two vectors is zero, then the

vectors are said to be orthogonal(perpendicular).

⃗·B
A ⃗ =0 Orthogonal
 Example

1. Vector A⃗ = iˆ + jˆ and vector B

⃗ = −2iˆ + 3j.
ˆ What is:
(a) the scalar product of A ⃗ and B?
⃗ Show that A ⃗·B⃗ =B⃗ ·A
⃗
⃗
(b) the angle between A and B? ⃗
(c) the scalar projection of A⃗ onto B?
⃗
⃗
(d) the component of B which is along A? ⃗
2. Consider a block placed on a horizontal surface and that force F⃗ is
applied on the block to move the block through displacement S. ⃗
F⃗ = (5iˆ+ 3j)N
ˆ and S⃗ = (−2iˆ+ 4j)m,
ˆ what is the work done by the
applied force?
3. Consider force F⃗ of a certain machine is applied on a body to move
the body with an average velocity ⃗v . If F⃗ = (50iˆ + 30j)N
ˆ and
ˆ ˆ
⃗v = (3i + 4j)m/s, what is the power developed by the machine?
 III. Vector Product

• This involves two vectors multiplied together and gives us a vector.

It also called cross product(outer product).

• The vector product of two vectors is defined as:

⃗×B
A ⃗ = |A||B|sinθn̂

⃗×B
• A ⃗ reads as vector A ⃗ cross vector B.
⃗
• where: |A| and |B| are the magnitudes of the vectors A ⃗ and B,
⃗ θ is
the smaller angle between the vectors A ⃗ and B,
⃗ which is measured
when the vectors are drawn from the same starting
point(tail-to-tail).
⃗ × B,
• n̂ is unit vector indicating the direction of A ⃗ its is determined
by Right Hand Rule.
• Right Hand Rule: states “if two vectors A(which⃗ is indicated by
⃗
index finger of right hand) and B(which is indicated by middle finger
of right hand) crossed with each other through the smaller angle θ,
the direction of A⃗×B ⃗ is indicated by the thumb of right hand”.
⃗×B
• This tells us that; if A ⃗ = C⃗ , then C⃗ is perpendicular
(orthogonal) to both A ⃗ and B.
⃗
• The vector(cross) product of basic unit vectors are:

ˆ = |j|
|i| ˆ = |k̂| = 1 unit vectors.

ˆ jˆ and k̂ are mutually perpendicular(orthogonal) So:

• i,

iˆ × iˆ = |i||
ˆ i|sinθ
ˆ n̂ = 1 × 1sin(00 )n̂ = 0

iˆ × jˆ = |i||
ˆ j|sinθ
ˆ n̂ = 1 × 1sin(900 )n̂ = k̂
iˆ × k̂ = |i||
ˆ k̂|sinθn̂ = 1 × 1sin(900 )n̂ = −jˆ
• Similarly:
iˆ × iˆ = jˆ × jˆ = k̂ × k̂ = 0
iˆ × jˆ = k̂, iˆ × k̂ = −j, ˆ jˆ × iˆ = −k̂
j × k̂ = i, k̂ × i = j, k̂ × jˆ = −iˆ
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
• When the vectors are given in component form the dot product is
⃗ = Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + Az k̂
manipulated as follows. For a given vectors A
⃗ = Bx iˆ + By jˆ + Bz k̂
and B

⃗×B
A ⃗ = (Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ + Az k̂) × (Bx iˆ + By jˆ + Bz k̂)
= Ax iˆ × Bx iˆ + Ax iˆ × By jˆ + Ax iˆ × Bz k̂
+Ay jˆ × Bx iˆ + Ay jˆ × By jˆ + Ay jˆ × Bz k̂
+Az jˆ × Bx iˆ + Az jˆ × By jˆ + Az jˆ × Bz k̂
= Ax Bx (iˆ × i)
ˆ + Ax By (iˆ × j)
ˆ + Ax Bz (iˆ × k̂)
+Ay Bx (jˆ × i)
ˆ + Ay By (jˆ × j)
ˆ + Ay Bz (jˆ × k̂)
ˆ + Az By (k̂ × j)
+Az Bx (k̂ × i) ˆ + Az Bz (k̂ × k̂)
ˆ
= Ax By (k̂)+Ax Bz (−j)+A ˆ ˆ ˆ
y Bx (−k̂)+Ay Bz (i)+Az Bx (j)+Az By (−i)

= (Ay Bz − Az By )iˆ + (Az Bx − Ax Bz )jˆ + (Ax By − Ay Bx )k̂

• Therefore:
⃗×B
A ⃗ = (Ay Bz − Az By )iˆ + (Az Bx − Ax Bz )jˆ + (Ax By − Ay Bx )k̂
 • We can do this also by using the determinant

iˆ jˆ k̂
⃗ ⃗
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

= (Ay Bz − Az By )iˆ + (Az Bx − Ax Bz )jˆ + (Ax By − Ay Bx )k̂

⃗×B
• A ⃗ = −(B ⃗ × A)
⃗ Not commutative.
⃗ × (B
• A ⃗ + C⃗ ) = A
⃗×B ⃗ +A⃗ × C⃗ Distributive. SHOW!
⇒ The applications of vector product are:
• To find angle between two vectors
• To calculate area of parallelogram
• To calculate Torque
• To test whether two vectors are collinear or not
a. Finding angle between two vectors
• We know that the vector product of two vectors is given by:

⃗ × B|
|A ⃗ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ sin θ

• Where; θ is the smaller angle between the vectors A ⃗ and B,

⃗ when
they are drawn from the same starting point (tail-to-tail).
• Then the angle θ can be calculated as:
!
⃗ × B|
|A ⃗ |A⃗ × B|⃗
sin θ = =⇒ θ = sin−1
⃗ B|
|A|| ⃗ ⃗ B|
|A|| ⃗
b. Area of parallelogram
• The area of parallelogram formed by two vectors is the vector
product of the two vectors. Area is a vector, its direction is normal
to the surface.
Area = length × width
⃗ × B|
Area = |A ⃗ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ sin θ

c. Calculating Torque
• Torque is the rotational effect of force. Its the vector product of
distance from the axis of rotation(radius) and the force.
Torque = radius × Force

⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ = |⃗r ||F⃗ | sin θn̂

d. Collinearity test
• This is to check whether the given two vectors are collinear or not.
• For two vectors A⃗ and B⃗ to be collinear, the angle between them
must be 0 (parallel) or 1800 (anti-parallel/opposite).
0

• Then the vector product of them is:

⃗×B
A ⃗ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ sin θ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ sin 00 = 0 parallel

⃗×B
A ⃗ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ sin θ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ sin 1800 = 0 opposite
• Therefore; if the vector product of two vectors is zero, then the
vectors are said to be collinear.

⃗×B
A ⃗ =0 Collinear
 Example

ˆ jˆ+ 5k̂ and ⃗b = 7iˆ+ 4j–8

1. Two vectors ⃗a = 3i–2 ˆ k̂, (a) Find the vector
⃗ ⃗
product ⃗a × b and b × ⃗a.
(b) Find the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
⃗ = 8iˆ + j–2
2. Find the area of parallelogram formed by the vectors A ˆ k̂
⃗ ˆ ˆ
and B = 5i–3j + k̂
3. A force (2, -5)N acts at a displacement of (3, 1)m from a point.
What is the torque exerted by the force? Find the magnitude of this
torque.
4. Given four vectors A⃗ = 2iˆ − j,
ˆ B⃗ = 4iˆ − 2j,
ˆ C⃗ = iˆ − jˆ and
⃗ ˆ ˆ
D = 2i + 3j which pair of these vectors are collinear?
⃗ and B;
A ⃗ A
⃗ and C⃗ ; A
⃗ and D;⃗ B ⃗ and C⃗ ; B
⃗ and D;
⃗ C⃗ and D ⃗
 IV. Triple scalar product and Triple vector product
Triple Scalar Product
• Consider the three vectors, A,⃗ B⃗ and C⃗ ; then triple scalar product of them is
given as:
• =⇒ A ⃗ · (B
⃗ × C⃗ ) = B
⃗ · (C⃗ × A)
⃗ = C⃗ · (A ⃗ × B)
⃗

• If this vectors are the sides of parallelopiped, the triple

scalar product of these vectors represents the volume
of the parallelopiped.
⃗ · (B
V =A ⃗ × C⃗ )

⃗ · (B
• If A ⃗ × C⃗ ) = 0; then A,
⃗ B⃗ and C⃗ are said to be co-planar.

Triple vector product

⃗ B
• Consider the three vectors, A, ⃗ and C⃗ ; then triple vector product of them is
given as:
A⃗×B ⃗ × C⃗ = B(
⃗ A ⃗ · C⃗ ) − C⃗ (A
⃗ · B)
⃗
 Application of Vectors

⇒ Vectors have many applications. They are extremely useful in

physics and many other areas. Some applications are as follo ws.
• Analyzing forces on a bridge.
• Analyzing the motion of an aeroplane.
• Programming motion or the position of an object in a computer game
or animation.
• Displaying graphics (in the form of vector graphics) so that the
diagram can be re-sized easily without any loss of quality.
• Modeling and planning the trajectory (path) of a space probe.
• Analyzing the motion of planets.
• Analyzing electric and magnetic fields.
⇒ These are just a few examples – there are many more. We can use
vectors whenever there is a variable that has direction as well as
magnitude.