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DNA FINGERPRINTING

NAME – Nafees Irfaan

SURJA SARKAR
 BODHISUKHA SCHOOL MADHYAMGRAM

BIOLOGY
INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

SURJA SARKAR
NAME- Nafees Irfaan
CLASS- XII
BOARD ROLL NO.-

2022-2023
SESSION- 2024-2025
SELF CERTIFICATE –

Surja Sarkar
This is to certify that I, Nafees Irfaan,of class XII
BODHISUKHA
Science,of Infocus SCHOOL
India Public School , have solely
exclusively done this investigatory project pursuing
essential vital assistance from my teacher and others
having knowledge concerning the subject matter . I have
also taken reference from the web in due course to
formulate a successful project has been put together on
a bona fide grounds and the allied information is truly
genuine.

Students Signature
Nafees Irfaan
Class XII Student
___________________________________
 CERTIFICATE
Surja Sarkar,
This is to inform that Nafees Irfaan student of class
XII Science has successfully completed the project
titled “DNA FINGERPRINTING” under the guidance of
2022-2023 in fulfillment of the
during the year 2024-2025
biology practical examination conducted by AISSCE.
New Delhi

Signature of Signature of
Internal Examiner External Examiner

___________________ ________________
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many people have best

owned upon me their blessings and the
heart pledged support, this time I am utilizing to thank all the people who have
been concerned with project.

BODHISUKHA
Primarily I would thank Infocus SCHOOLSchool
India Public
for being able to complete this project with success. Then I would like to thank my
Principal Mrs. Srinwanti Dhar
Ma’am and my Biology Teacher
Biology Ms.Jhuma
Teacher Ma’am,Shaha
whoseMa’am, whose
valuable valuable guidance
guidance
has been the ones that helped me patch this project and make it full proof success
her suggestions and her instructions has served as the major contributor
towards the completion of the project.

Then I would like to thank my parents and friends who have helped me with their
valuable suggestions and guidance has been helpful in various phases of the
completion of the project.

Last but not the least I would like to thank my classmates who have helped me
a lot
a lot.
Index

INDEX
 Introduction to DNA Finger printing :

 DNA fingerprinting was invented in 1984 by Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys after
he realised you could detect variations in human DNA, in the form of these
minisatellites.

 DNA fingerprinting is a technique that simultaneously detects lots of

minisatellites in the genome to produce a pattern unique to an individual.
This is a DNA fingerprint.

 The probability of having two people with the same DNA fingerprint that
are not identical twins is very small.

 Just like your actual fingerprint, your DNA fingerprint is something you are
born with, it is unique to you.
 STAGES INVOLVED

1. COLLECTION OF ORGANIC EXAMPLE BLOOD, SPIT, BUCCAL SWAB,

SEMEN, OR SOLID TISSUE.

2. DNA EXTRACTION.
3. RESTRICTION ABSORPTION OR PCR INTENSIFICATION.
4. AGAROSE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS, SLIM ELECTROPHORESIS OR DNA
SEQUENCING.

5. INTERPRETING OUTCOMES.
THE PROCESS OF DNA FINGER PRINTING :
SAMPLE COLLECTION, DNA EXTRACTION, ABSORPTION OR
INTENSIFICATION AND INVESTIGATION RESULTS ARE SIGNIFICANT
ADVANCES.

STEP 1: SAMPLE COLLECTION:

WE CAN GET DNA FROM ANY BODILY SAMPLE OR FLUID. BUCCAL SMEAR,
SALIVA, BLOOD, AMNIOTIC FLUID, CHORIONIC VILLI, SKIN, HAIR, BODY FLUID,
AND OTHER TISSUES ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF SAMPLES USED.

IN CRIMINAL CASES, A BUCCAL SWAB IS USUALLY TAKEN. THE BUCCAL SWAB

SAMPLE COLLECTION METHOD IS NON-INVASIVE AND HANDY.

HOWEVER, IF NOT MAINTAINED PROPERLY, IT CAN EASILY BE CONTAMINATED

WITH BACTERIA. FURTHER, THE BUCCAL SWAB DNA YIELD IS VERY LESS. A
BLOOD SAMPLE IS A GOOD REPLACEMENT FOR A BUCCAL SWAB SAMPLE. WE
CAN USE A BLOOD SAMPLE AS WELL.
STEP 2: DNA EXTRACTION
WE HAVE TO FIRST OBTAIN DNA.

TO PERFORM ANY GENETIC APPLICATIONS, DNA EXTRACTION IS ONE OF

THE MOST SIGNIFICANT STEPS. GOOD QUALITY AND QUANTITY
DNA INCREASES THE POSSIBILITIES OF GETTING GOOD RESULTS.

YOU CAN USE EITHER OF THE DNA EXTRACTION METHODS LISTED

BELOW,

1. PHENOL-CHLOROFORM DNA EXTRACTION METHOD

2. CTAB DNA EXTRACTION METHOD
3. PROTEINASE K DNA EXTRACTION METHOD
NEVERTHELESS, WE STRONGLY RECOMMEND USING A READY-TO-USE
DNA EXTRACTION KIT FOR DNA FINGERPRINTING.

THE PURITY AND QUANTITY OF DNA SHOULD BE ~1.80 AND >100NG,

RESPECTIVELY TO PERFORM THE DNA TEST. PURIFY THE DNA USING
THE DNA PURIFICATION KIT, IF NEEDED.
STEP 3: SELECTING A TECHNIQUE:
WHAT TECHNIQUE TO USE DEPENDS ON WHAT ASSAY YOU ARE PERFORMING, FOR
INSTANCE, PCR-BASED GEL ELECTROPHORESIS IS SUFFICIENT FOR DETECTING
MATERNAL CELL CONTAMINATION.

ON THE OTHER HAND, CAPILLARY GEL ELECTROPHORESIS AND REAL-TIME PCR IS

EMPLOYED FOR FORENSIC ANALYSIS.

EACH TECHNIQUE HAS ITS IMPORTANCE AND LIMITATIONS. HERE IS THE LIST OF
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH TECHNIQUE.

Technique Advantages disadvantages

Tedious and time-consuming

process.
RFLP Accurate and cheap Need more DNA samples.

Can’t count the number or

repeats present.
Can’t distinguish smaller
PCR-agarose gel Quick, easy to use, cheaper, accurate and DNA fragments.
electrophoresis reliable
Can’t give sequence
information.

Can’t distinguish smaller

fragments.
Fast, easy to use, cheap, accurate and Can’t give sequence
Rt-PCR
measures the number of repeats. information.

Capillary Distinguish smaller DNA fragments up to 1 Can’t count the number of

electrophoresis bp change. repeats present.

DNA sequencing Provides sequence information. Time-consuming and costly.

STEP 4: RESULT AND INTERPRETATION:
AS WE DISCUSSED, TECHNIQUE TO TECHNIQUE, THE RESULTS VAY AND THE ANALYSIS
PROCESS TOO. HERE IS THE SUMMARY.

Technique Results

RFLP Autoradiography- DNA bands are observed on a film.

PCR Agarose gel electrophoresis- DNA bands are seen on a gel

rt-PCR The amplification curve shows different amplicons present in a sample

DNA sequencing The sequence information of the target

Capillary gel electrophoresis Separates even minute bands and distinguishes them.

BY COMPARING THE DNA PROFILES OF VARIOUS SAMPLES, INFORMATION OF

VARIATIONS AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS CAN BE OBTAINED. NOTABLY,
THE ENTIRE PROCESS IS NOW ALMOST AUTOMATED. WE DO NOT HAVE TO DO
ANYTHING, THE COMPUTER GIVES US THE FINAL RESULTS.
IMPORTANCE OF DNA
FINGERPRINTIG:
DNA FINGERPRINTING, ALSO KNOWN AS DNA TYPING, DNA
TESTING OR DNA PROFILING, IS A CHEMICAL TEST TO ESTABLISH THE
GENETIC MAKEUP OF A PERSON OR ANOTHER LIVING THING. THE
TECHNIQUE WAS DISCOVERED BY ACCIDENT BY BRITISH GENETICIST
ALEC JEFFREYS IN 1984, AFTER HE EXTRACTED DNA FROM CELLS
AND FIXED IT TO PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM. DNA FINGERPRINTING WAS
FIRST USED IN A POLICE INVESTIGATION IN THE U.K. IN 1986, AND
SINCE THEN MILLIONS OF PEOPLE ACROSS THE WORLD HAVE HAD
THEIR DNA TESTED DURING CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS.
 APPLICATION OF DNA FINGERPRINTING:

 DNA FINGERPRINTING IS USED BY SCIENTISTS TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN

INDIVIDUALS OF THE SAME SPECIES USING ONLY SAMPLES OF THEIR DNA. IT IS A
PRIMARY METHOD FOR IDENTIFYING AN INDIVIDUAL.
1. FORENSIC SCIENCE:
BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS USED FOR DNA PROFILING ARE: BLOOD, HAIR, SALIVA,
SEMEN, BODY TISSUE CELLS ETC. DNA ISOLATED FROM THE EVIDENCE SAMPLE CAN BE
COMPARED THROUGH VNTR (VARIABLE NUMBER OF TANDEM REPEATS) PROTOTYPE.
IT IS USEFUL IN SOLVING CRIMES LIKE MURDER AND RAPE.
2. PATERNITY AND MATERNITY DETERMINATION:
A PERSON ACCEDES TO HIS OR HER VNTRS FROM HIS OR HER PARENTS. PARENT-
CHILD VNTR PROTOTYPE ANALYSIS HAS BEEN USED TO SOLVE DISPUTED CASES. THIS
INFORMATION CAN ALSO BE USED IN INHERITANCE CASES, IMMIGRATION CASES.
3. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION:
IT UTILIZES THE CONCEPT OF USING DNA FINGERPRINTS AS A SORT OF GENETIC BAR
CODE TO PINPOINT INDIVIDUALS.
4. DIAGNOSIS OF INHERITED DISORDERS:
IT IS ALSO USEFUL IN DIAGNOSING INHERITED DISORDERS IN BOTH PRENATAL AND
NEWBORN BABIES. THESE DISORDERS MAY INCLUDE CYSTIC FIBROSIS, HEMOPHILIA,
HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE, FAMILIAL ALZHEIMER’S, SICKLE CELL ANEMIA, THALASSEMIA,
AND MANY OTHERS.
5. DEVELOPMENT OF CURES FOR INHERITED DISORDERS:
BY STUDYING THE DNA FINGERPRINTS OF RELATIVES WHO HAVE A HISTORY OF SOME
PARTICULAR DISORDER, DNA PROTOTYPES ASSOCIATED WITH THE DISEASE CAN BE
ASCERTAINED.
6. DETECTION OF AIDS:
BY COMPARING THE BAND OF HIV “RNA” (CONVERTED TO DNA USING RTPCR)
WITH THE BANDS FORM BY THE MAN’S BLOOD, PERSON SUFFERING WITH AIDS CAN
BE IDENTIFIED.
7. BREEDING PROGRAM:
BREEDERS CONVENTIONALLY USE THE PHENOTYPE TO EVALUATE THE GENOTYPE OF A
PLANT OR AN ANIMAL.AS IT IS DIFFICULT TO MAKE OUT HOMOZYGOUS OR
HETEROZYGOUS DOMINANCE FROM APPEARANCE, THE DNA FINGERPRINTING
ALLOWS A FASTIDIOUS AND PRECISE DETERMINATION OF GENOTYPE. IT IS BASICALLY
USEFUL IN BREEDING RACE HORSES AND HUNTING DOGS.
 ADVANTAGES OF DNA FINGERPRINTING:
1. IT IS AN UNOBTRUSIVE FORM OF TESTING.
A DNA SAMPLE IS REQUIRED FOR MATCHING AND COMPARISON. BECAUSE DNA CAN
BE FOUND IN MANY BODY FLUIDS AND TISSUES, RETRIEVING MATERIALS IS A SIMPLE
AND UNOBTRUSIVE PROCESS. MANY COLLECTORS USE A COTTON SWAB TO COLLECT
SALIVA FROM THE MOUTH FOR TESTING. HAIR FOLLICLES CAN BE USED AS WELL. THAT
REDUCES THE COST OF COLLECTION AND ELIMINATES THE DISCOMFORT OF NEEDLES TO
COLLECT BLOOD.
2. IT CAN BE USED FOR MORE THAN CRIMINAL JUSTICE PURPOSES.
DNA FINGERPRINTING MAY BE USED TO CREATE GENETIC PROFILES FOR SUSPECTS,
BUT THIS TECHNOLOGY CAN DO MORE THAN SERVE THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM.
PRODUCTS LIKE 23ANDME AND ANCESTRYDNA CAN HELP PEOPLE RESEARCH THEIR
ANCESTRY. DNA COMPARISONS CAN IDENTIFY PEOPLE WHO BELONG TO THE SAME
FAMILY. TV SHOWS LIKE MAURY AND THE STEVE WILKOS SHOW HAVE USED DNA
TESTING TO CONFIRM PARENTHOOD FOR 10+ YEARS.
3. COLLECTED EVIDENCE CAN BE STORED INDEFINITELY.
DNA SAMPLES DO NOT DEGRADE OVER TIME LIKE OTHER FORMS OF FORENSIC
EVIDENCE. AS LONG AS A PROPER CHAIN OF CUSTODY AND STORAGE IS FOLLOWED,
THE EVIDENCE COLLECTED WITH DNA ON IT CAN BE STORED INDEFINITELY. THE DNA
FROM A TOOTH AND THIGH BONE, FOSSILIZED IN SPAIN, WERE SEQUENCED BY
SCIENTISTS IN 2016 FROM SAMPLES THAT WERE BELIEVED TO BE OVER 400,000
YEARS OLD.
4. IT CAN BE USED TO IDENTIFY HEREDITARY DISEASES.
DNA FINGERPRINTING IS OFTEN USED TO IDENTIFY CERTAIN HEREDITARY DISEASES
THAT MAY BE LIFE-THREATENING IF NOT DISCOVERED IMMEDIATELY. ONE OF THE
MOST IMPORTANT DISORDERS TO DISCOVER IS CALLED PKU, OR PHENYLKETONURIA.
THIS METABOLIC DISORDER MAY BE VERY RARE, WITH FEWER THAN 20,000 CASES
PER YEAR, BUT IT CAN ALSO BE A LIFELONG CHRONIC DIAGNOSIS. TREATMENT OF PKU
INVOLVES A VERY STRICT DIET WITH LIMITED PROTEIN TO PREVENT BRAIN DAMAGE
FROM OCCURRING SINCE THE BODY CANNOT PROPERLY PROCESS PHENYLALANINE.
DISADVANTAGES OF DNA FINGERPRINTING:
1. IT CREATES PRIVACY ISSUES.
WITH CURRENT TECHNOLOGY, A COLLECTED SAMPLE OF DNA THAT HAS
BEEN ANALYZED CAN BE SAVED IN A DATABASE INDEFINITELY. ACCESSING
THIS INFORMATION COULD RESULT IN PRIVACY ISSUES, ESPECIALLY IF THE
DNA WAS COLLECTED WITHOUT PERMISSION. DNA IS OFTEN COLLECTED
DURING AN INVESTIGATION TO EXCLUDE SUSPECTS, SO THERE MUST BE A
PROCESS IN PLACE THAT REMOVES THE INFORMATION COLLECTED FROM
INNOCENT PARTIES TO PREVENT A “BIG BROTHER” TYPE OF STATE.
2. HACKING BECOMES A MAJOR CONCERN.
IN JANUARY 2018, TWO SECURITY VULNERABILITIES INVOLVING THE
HARDWARE IN COMPUTERS AND MOBILE DEVICES, CALLED “MELTDOWN”
AND “SPECTRE,” SHOWED THAT HACKERS COULD STEAL DATA FROM THE
MEMORY OF AN APP THAT IS RUNNING. THESE VULNERABLE PROCESSORS ARE
IN 90% OF THE WORLD’S DEVICES. DATABASES OF DNA INFORMATION
COULD BE POTENTIALLY ACCESSIBLE BECAUSE OF SECURITY VULNERABILITIES,
CREATING THIRD-PARTY ACCESS TO DNA FINGERPRINTING INFORMATION
THAT COULD LEAD TO A WHOLE NEW FORM OF IDENTITY THEFT.
3. IT DOESN’T REMOVE THE IDEA OF A FALSE CONVICTION.
IMAGINE YOU’VE GONE TO THE MOVIES WITH A LOVED ONE. AS YOU LEAVE,
YOU SUFFER FROM A COUGHING FIT JUST OUTSIDE THE THEATER. MAYBE
YOU SNEEZE TOO. YOU TRY TO COVER UP, BUT SOME OF THE SALIVA AND
“SNEEZE JUICE” HIT THE GROUND. YOU THINK NOTHING OF IT. THREE HOURS
LATER, SOMEONE IS MURDERED IN FRONT OF THAT THEATER AND YOUR DNA
IS ON THE GROUND, COLLECTED BY FORENSIC SPECIALISTS. GUESS WHO JUST
BECAME A MURDER SUSPECT? DNA FINGERPRINTING MAY ADD LAYERS OF
EVIDENCE, BUT THAT DOESN’T MEAN THE EVIDENCE TELLS AN ACCURATE
STORY OF WHAT HAPPENED.
DNA FINGERPRINTING IN FORENSIC DEPARTMENT:
DNA F INGERPRINTING IN WILDLIFE CRIMES :
A DVANCES IN DNA TECHNOLOGY IN THE RECENT YEARS HAVE ALTERED THE
INVESTIGATION OF MANY OFFENCES . T HE UTILIZATION OF THESE
TECHNIQUES ALSO HAS DIRECT APPLICATION TO MANY WILDLIFE RELATED
OFFENCES . E XAMINATION OF NON - HUMAN DNA CAN PROVIDE A VITAL
PROOF IN WILDLIFE CRIME INVESTIGATIONS . DNA IS PRESENT IN A
DIFFERENT TYPES OF EVIDENCE RANGING FROM BLOOD , BONE AND FEATHERS
TO POWDERED PLANT MATERIAL , ANIMAL SALIVA AND OTHER TRANSFERABLE
TRACES . A FTER THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST HUMAN DNA
FINGERPRINTING METHOD BY S IR A LEC J EFFREY ’ S IT WAS QUICKLY REALIZED
THAT PARALLEL TECHNIQUES COULD BE APPLIED FOR OTHER SPECIES ; SUCH
AS BIRDS . T HIS LED TO FORENSIC GENETIC EVIDENCE BEING USED TO
SUPPORT A SUCCESSFUL PROSECUTION RELATING TO THE THEFT OF WILD
HAWKS IN THE UK.
DNA PROFILING IS CURRENTLY APPLIED TO LINK TRACE EVIDENCE ITEMS TO
VICTIMS OF WILDLIFE CRIME IN CASES OF POACHING , THEFT AND ANIMAL
PERSECUTION ACROSS A WIDE RANGE OF SPECIES . A LSO USED TO VERIFY
FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AS A PART OF INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE
LAUNDERING OF WILD ANIMALS THROUGH CAPTIVE BREEDING
PROGRAMMES . A DDITIONALLY TO THE INDIVIDUAL IDENTIFICATION ; DNA
PROFILING TECHNIQUES MAY BE USED TO MATCH A SAMPLE TO ITS
GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN . T HIS HAS NUMEROUS POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS FROM
INVESTIGATING THE ILLEGAL TIMBER TRADE TO ENFORCING FISHING
REGULATIONS .
I N SEXUAL OFFENCES :
E ARLIER TO THE USE OF DNA FINGERPRINTING , THE CASES OF SEXUAL
ASSAULTS SOLVED ONLY BY THE USE OF CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCES . I N
SEXUAL OFFENCES AS THERE WILL BE NO EYEWITNESS IT WILL BE DIFFICULT
FOR THE VICTIM TO PROVE THE OFFENCE . T HE DISCOVERY OF DNA CREATED
A GREAT HOPE IN DEALING THE CASES OF SEXUAL OFFENCES . B IOLOGICAL
EVIDENTIARY CLUES SUCH AS SEMEN , SALIVA AND SWABS ARE IMPORTANT IN
DNA FINGERPRINTING AND AIDS IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF SUSPECT . F OR
INSTANCE , SALIVA IS FOUND IN A VARIETY OF OFFENCES LIKE MURDERS ,
SCUFFLES , SEXUAL OFFENCES SPECIFICALLY IN BITEMARKS OF VICTIM OR
SUSPECT , ON CIGARETTE BUTTS , TEA CUPS ETC . USUALLY CARRY SALIVA
STAINS . DNA FINGERPRINTING FROM THE SEMEN , SWABS AND SALIVA
FOUND AT THE SCENE OF CRIME HELPS IN ARRESTING THE SUSPECTS RAPIDLY .
T HE CONTAMINATION OF SEMEN WITH OTHER BODY MATERIALS SUCH AS
VAGINAL FLUIDS , RECTAL MATTER IN SODOMY CASES , SALIVA IN CASES OF
ORAL SEX OR SEMEN OF MULTIPLE RAPISTS IN GANG RAPES EVERY CULPRIT
CAN BE INDIVIDUALIZED AND IDENTIFIED BY THE PROCESS OF DNA
FINGERPRINTING .
 CONCLUSION:

DNA EVIDENCE IS EASY TO OBTAIN BECAUSE GENETIC MATERIAL IS FOUND IN

ALL HUMAN CELLS, SAVE RED BLOOD CELLS. AS A RESULT, WHEN WE LEAVE
BEHIND SMALL BIOLOGICAL BITS OF OURSELVES, THESE BITS CAN BE USED TO
IDENTIFY US AND LINK US TO THE PLACES WE'VE BEEN. WITH MODERN
TECHNOLOGY, THE AMOUNT OF DNA REQUIRED FOR ANALYSIS CAN BE
OBTAINED FROM EVEN A MINISCULE BIOLOGICAL SAMPLE, WHICH ALLOWS
POLICE TO MATCH CRIME SCENE EVIDENCE WITH SUSPECTS. HOWEVER,
BECAUSE FORENSICS IS A SCIENCE LARGELY ROOTED IN PROBABILITIES, EVEN A
CONFIRMED "MATCH" DOES NOT SUPPLY CONCRETE PROOF OF GUILT. IN
ADDITION, DNA DATABASES DESIGNED TO SIMPLIFY THE PROCESS OF
CONNECTING PAST OFFENDERS TO RECENT CRIMES ARE FRAUGHT WITH
CONCERNS INVOLVING INDIVIDUAL GENETIC RIGHTS, AS WELL AS PROBLEMS
RELATED TO DELAYED SAMPLE ENTRY, BOTH OF WHICH HINDER THE
ULTIMATE USEFULNESS OF THESE DATABASES. AS A RESULT, EVEN THOUGH
FORENSICS IS UNDENIABLY IMPORTANT TO THE MODERN JUSTICE SYSTEM, ITS
PERSONAL RAMIFICATIONS AND ETHICAL QUESTIONS ARE TOPICS OF
CONTINUING DISCUSSION WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC, LAW ENFORCEMENT, AND
LEGAL COMMUNITIES.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
WEBSITES:

 https://www.wikipedia.org/
 https://www.google.com/search?gs_ssp=eJzj4tTP1TcwMU02T1JgNGB0YPBi
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3i465j0i131i433i512j0i67j0i131i433i512j69i60l3.6173j0j4&sourceid=chrome&i
e=UTF-8

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