Proponent Theory/ Principle/ Model Summary

The learning of a habit occurs

through reinforcement, positive
Burrhus Frederic Skinner Operant Conditioning
(reward) and negative
(punishment).

Language is so complex that it is

Learning Acquisition Device
almost incredible that it can be
acquired by a child in a short period
Noam Chomsky of time.

The basic grammar rules are the

Universal Grammar
same for all languages.

Acculturation can be defined as the

integration of a second language
John Schumann Acculturation Model
learner with a target language
community/ culture.
The nativization model views
language acquisition as a process
Roger Andersen Nativization Model predetermined by two notions,
nativization (assimilation) and
denativization (accommodation).
People adjust their speech style and
Howard Giles Accommodation Theory dialect according to the context, and
whoever they are in company with.
Language development should be
viewed within the framework of
how the learner discovers the
Evelyn Hatch Discourse Theory meaning capacity of language by
taking part in communication.
Therefore, interaction rather than
exposure is required.
Rod Ellis

A great deal of exposure to a target

Variable Competence Model language is necessary for learning.
 Principle 1. Instruction needs to
ensure that learners develop both a
rich repertoire of formulaic
expressions and a rule-based
competence.

Principle 2. Instruction needs to

ensure that learners focus
predominantly on meaning.

Principle 3. Instruction needs to

ensure that learners also focus on
form.

Principle 4. Instruction needs to be

predominantly directed at
developing implicit knowledge of
the L2 while not neglecting explicit
knowledge.

Principle 5. Instruction needs to take

into account the learner’s ‘built-in
syllabus’.
Principles of Language Learning
Principle 6. Successful instructed
language learning requires extensive
L2 input.

Principle 7. Successful instructed

language learning also requires
opportunities for output.

Principle 8. The opportunity to

interact in the L2 is central to
developing L2 proficiency.

Principle 9. Instruction needs to take

account of individual differences in
learners.

Principle 10. In assessing learners’

L2 proficiency, it is important to
examine free as well as controlled
production.
The acquisition of second and
foreign languages is mainly the
John Lamendella Neurofunctional Theory
product of neural (brain-based)
processes.
Em Griffin Principles of Communication Theory 1. Motivation
2. Identity/ Self-image
3. Credibility
 4. Expectation
5. Audience Adaptation
6. Social Construction
7. Shared Meaning
8. Narrative
9. Conflict
10. Dialogue
People consume a dazzling array of
media messages for all sorts of
Elihu Katz Uses and Gratification Theory reasons, and the effect of a given
message is unlikely to be the same
for everyone.
It explains the Jews’ status during
World War II under Nazi control.
Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann Spiral of Silence Adolf Hitler dominated the society
and the minority Jews became silent
due to fear.
If we fail to achieve symmetry
through communication with
another person about an object
important to both of us, we may
Theodore Newcomb Symmetry Theory
then change our attitude toward
either the other person or the
object in question in order to
establish symmetry.
Congruity Theory In the congruity paradigm, a person
(P) receives an assertion from a
source (S), toward which he or she
has an attitude, about an object (O),
Charles Osgood and Percy
toward which he or she also has an
Tannenbaum
attitude. In this model, how much P
likes S and O will determine if a
state of congruity or consistency
exists.
Being psychologically uncomfortable
will motivate a person to try to
Leon Festinger Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
reduce cognitive constrain and
achieve consonance.
Gerbner’s General Model of
communication accentuates that
perception of an event (stimuli) may
General Model of Communication
differ from one person to another. It
happens considering the selection,
George Gerbner context, and availability factors of a
person’s perception of events.

Media has gradual effects on its

Cultivation Theory
audience.
Similarities and differences between
Robert Lado Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis L1 and L2 are important predictors
of ease and difficulty of L2 learning.
Howard Gardner Multiple Intelligences 1. Visual-spatial
2. Linguistic-verbal
3. Logical-mathematical
4. Bodily-kinesthetic
 5. Musical
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalistic
9. Existential
After a certain point in a person’s
maturation process, the ability to
Critical Period Hypothesis
learn languages to a native-like
standard is lost.
Eric Lenneberg
Writing, like swimming, is a
culturally specific and learned
behavior.
Modified interaction is the required
Michael Long The Interaction Hypothesis mechanism for making language
understandable.
The Noticing Hypothesis Comprehensible input does not
contribute to language knowledge
Richard Schmidt gain until the learner becomes
aware of a specific language
characteristic.
When students learn one language,
they acquire a bank of skills and
implicit metalinguistic knowledge
that they can draw upon when they
Common Underlying Proficiency
Jim Cummins learn subsequent languages.
Model
Anything that is learned in either
language would then become part
of this bank to be drawn upon when
needed across languages.
Gestalt Theory of Learning The whole of a set of stimuli, such as
verbal and nonverbal
Wolfgang Kohler communication, has a greater
influence on behavior than
individual parts
The learner draws on his or her own
experience and existing knowledge
Jerome Bruner Discovery Learning
to discover facts and relationships
and new truths to be learned.
Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor (0-2) Children progress through four
Jean Piaget Preoperational (2-4) stages and they all do so in the same
Concrete operations (7-11) order.
Formal operations (11+)
People learn through observing
others’ behavior, attitudes, and
outcomes of those behaviors. The
Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory necessary conditions for effective
modeling include attention,
retention, reproduction, and
motivation.
Stephen Krashen
Acquisition Learning Distinction
Language acquisition is
subconscious and informal while
language learning is conscious and
 formal.

Natural Order Hypothesis

Grammatical structures are acquired
in a predictable order.

Monitor Hypothesis
Conscious learning monitors the
process.

Input Hypothesis
i+1

Affective Filter Hypothesis Language input only becomes

language intake when it passes
through the affective filter.
Conversational Maxims
1. Maxim of Quality
Paul Grice The Cooperative Principle 2. Maxim of Quantity
3. Maxim of Relation
4. Maxim of Manner
“Education without values, as useful
as it is, seems rather to make man a
C.S. Lewis more clever devil.”

“You can make anything by writing.”

Writing is situated within the social
context of the writer and is
Paul Prior Sociocultural Theory of Writing impacted by communities of
practice that occur as a part of the
situated social context.
1. Ideas: the meaning and
development of the
message
2. Organization: the internal
structure of the piece
3. Voice: the tone of the piece
—the personal stamp that
the writer brings to it
4. Word Choice: the specific
Ruth Culham 6 + 1 Traits of Writing vocabulary the writer uses
to convey meaning
5. Sentence Fluency: the way
the words and phrases flow
throughout the text
6. Conventions: the
mechanical correctness of
the piece
7. Presentation: the overall
appearance of the work
“Literature has hundreds of
Natalie Babbitt purposes, and it depends on the one
who’s doing the choosing.”
A.W. Bates and Gary Poole SECTIONS model The SECTIONS Model is an
1. Students applicable framework that
 2. Ease of use
3. Costs
4. Teaching functions
educators can use to evaluate the
5. Interaction
effectiveness of applying a certain
6. Organizational issues
technology in their classrooms.
7. Networking
8. Security and privacy

Written language is second-order

symbolism which progressively
develops into direct symbolism.

Written speech is the most

elaborate form of speech.
Lev Vygotsky
ZPD is the distance between the
Zone of Proximal Development
learner’s current development and
potential development with the help
of more knowledgeable others
(MKOs).