SPEAKING IN PUBLIC Rhetoric, composed during the 3rd century BCE,

is still considered the most important work on its

subject, and many of its principles are followed
by speakers and writers today. The great Roman
Throughout history, people have used public
leader Cicero used his speeches to defend liberty
speaking as a vital means of communication.
and wrote several weeks about oratory in
What the Greek leader Pericles said more than
general.
2,500 years ago is still true today: “One who
Over the centuries, many other notable thinkers
forms a judgment on any point but cannot
have dealt with issues of rhetoric, speech, and
explain” it clearly “might as well never have
language – including the Roman educator
thought at all on the subject.” Public speaking,
Quintilian, the Christian preacher St. Augustine,
as its name implies, is a way of making your
the medieval writer Christine de Pizan, the
ideas public – of sharing them with other people
British philosopher Francis Bacon, and the
and of influencing other people.
American critic Kenneth Burke. In recent years,
The Power of Public Speaking
communication researchers have provided an
During modern times, many women and men
increasingly scientific basis for understanding
around the globe have spread their ideas and
the methods and strategies of effective speech.
influence through public speaking. In the United
Your immediate objective is to apply those
States, the list includes Franklin Roosevelt, Billy
methods and strategies in your classroom
Graham, Cesar Chavez, Barbara Jordan, Ronald
speeches. What you learn, however, will be
Reagan, Martin Luther King, Hillary Clinton,
applicable long after you leave college. The
and Barack Obama. In other countries, we see
principles of public speaking are derived from a
the power of public speaking employed by such
long tradition and have been confirmed by a
people as former British Prime Minister
substantial bod of research. The more you know
Margaret Thatcher, South African leader Nelson
about the you will be in listening to the speeches
Mandela, Burmese democracy champion Aung
of other people.
San Suu Kyi, and Kenyan environmentalist and
Nobel Prize winner Wangari Maathai. Similarities Between Public Speaking and
Conversation
The Tradition of Public Speaking
Given the importance of public speaking, it is 1. Organizing your thoughts logically.
not surprising that it has been taught and studied
around the globe for thousands of years. Almost 2. Tailoring your message to your audience.
all cultures have an equivalent of the English
word “orator” to designate someone with special 3. Telling a story for a maximum impact.
skills in public speaking. The oldest known 4. Adapting to listener feedback.
handbook on effective speech was written on
papyrus in Egypt some 4500 years ago. Differences Between Public Speaking and
Eloquence was highly prized in ancient India, Conversation
Africa, and China, as well as among the Aztecs
and the other pre European cultures of North and Despite their similarities, public speaking and
South America. everyday conversation are not identical. Imagine
In classical Greece and Rome, public speaking that you are telling a story to a friend. Then
played a central role in education and civic life. imagine yourself telling the story to a group of
It was also studied extensively. Aristotle’s seven or eight friends. Now, imagine telling the
same story to 20 or 30 people. As the size of easily in all kinds of everyday situations become
your audience grows, you will find yourself frightened at the idea of standing up before a
adapting to three major differences between group to make a speech.
conversation and public speaking:
stage fright – the anxiety over the prospect of
1. Public speaking is more highly structured. It giving a speech in front of an audience
usually imposes strict time limitations on the NERVOUSNESS IS NORMAL
speaker. In most cases, the situation does not
allow listeners to interrupt with questions or If you feel nervous about giving a speech, you
commentary. The speaker must accomplish her are in a very good company
or his purpose in the speech itself. In preparing Much the same thing happens in speechmaking.
the speech, the speaker must anticipate questions Most experienced speakers have stage fright
that might arise in the minds of the listeners and before taking the floor, but their nervousness is a
answer them. Consequently, public speaking healthy sign that they are getting “psyched up”
demands much more detailed planning and for a good effort.
preparation than ordinary conversation.
In other words, it is perfectly normal – even
2. Public speaking requires more formal desirable – to be nervous at the start of the
language. Slang, jargon, and bad grammar have speech. Your body is responding as it would to
little place in public speeches. As angry as he is any stressful situation – by producing extra
about industrial pollution, when Van Jones adrenaline.
speaks to a congressional committee, he does adrenaline – a hormone released into the
not say, “We’ve damn well got to stop the bloodstream in response to physical or mental
greedy creeps who pollute low-income stress
communities just to make a few more bucks.”
Listeners usually react negatively to speakers DEALING WITH NERVOUSNESS
who do not elevate and polish their language positive nervousness – controlled nervousness
when addressing an audience. A speech should that helps a speaker for her or his presentation
be “special.” Do not think of yourself as having stage fright.
Instead, think of it as “stage excitement” or
3. Public speaking requires a different method of “stage enthusiasm.” It can help you get focused
delivery. When conversing informally, most and energized in the same way it helps athletes,
people talk quietly, interject stock phrases such musicians, and others get primed for a game or a
as “like” and “you know,” adopt a casual concert. Think of it as a normal part of giving a
posture, and use what are called vocalized successful speech.
pauses (“uh”, “er”, “um”). Effective public Six (6) Ways to Turn Nervousness from a
speakers, however, adjust their voices to be Negative Force into a Positive One
heard clearly throughout the audience. They
assume a more erect posture. They avoid 1. Acquire Speaking Experience. You have
distracting mannerisms and verbal habits. already taken the first step. You are enrolled in a
public speaking course where you will learn
Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class about speechmaking and gain speaking
One of the major concerns of students in any experience. You were probably nervous in each
speech class is stage fright. We may as well face situation because you were facing something
the issue squarely. Many people who converse new and unknown. Once you became
accustomed to the situation, it was no longer 6. Do not Expect Perfection. It may also help to
threatening. For most students, the biggest part know that there is no such thing as a perfect
of stage fright is fear of the unknown. The more speech. If you momentarily lose your place,
you learn about public speaking and the more reverse the order of a couple statements, or
speeches you give, the less threatening forget to pause at a certain spot, no one need to
speechmaking will become. be wiser. When such moments occur, just
proceed as if nothing happened. One of the
2. Prepare, Prepare, Prepare. Another key to biggest reasons people are concerned about
gaining confidence is to pick speech topics you making a mistake in a speech is that they view
truly care about – and then to prepare your speechmaking as a performance rather than an
speeches so thoroughly that you cannot help but act of communication. They feel the audience is
be successful. A standard rule of thumb in judging them against a scale of absolute
preparing your speech is that each minute of perfection in which every misstated word or
speaking time requires one to two hours of awkward gesture will count against them.
preparation – perhaps more, depending on the Sometimes, an error or two can actually enhance
amount of research needed for the speech. a speaker’s appeal by making her or him seem
more human.
3. Think positively. Confidence is mostly the
well-known power of positive thinking. If you Tips to Dealing with Nervousness in Your First
think you can do it, you usually can. On the Speeches
other hand, if you predict disaster and doom,
that is almost always what you will get. ● Be at your best physically and mentally. It is
Speakers who think negatively about themselves not a good idea to stay up until 2:00 A.M.
and the speech experience are much more likely partying with friends or cramming for an exam
to be overcome by stage fright that are speakers the night before your speech. A good night’s
who think positively. sleep will serve you better.

4. Use the Power of Visualization. Visualization ● As you are waiting to speak, quietly tighten
is closely related to positive thinking. It is used and relax your leg muscles, or squeeze your
by athletes, musicians, actors, speakers, and hands together and then release them. Such
others to enhance their performances in stressful actions help reduce tension by providing an
situations. outlet for your extra adrenaline.

visualization – mental imaging in which a ● Take a couple slow, deep breaths before you
speaker vividly pictures himself or herself start to speak. Most people, when they are tense,
giving a successful presentation take short, shallow breaths, which only
reinforces their anxiety. Deep breathing breaks
5. Know that Most Nervousness is Not Visible. this cycle of tension and helps calm your nerves.
It is hard to speak with poise and assurance if
you think you look tense and insecure. One of ● Work especially hard on your introduction.
the most valuable lessons you will learn as your Research has shown that a speaker’s anxiety
speech class proceeds is that only a fraction of level begins to drop significantly after the first
the turmoil you feel inside is visible on the 30 to 60 seconds of a presentation. Once you get
outside. Your nervous system may be giving you through the introduction, you should find
a thousand shocks, but the viewers can only see smoother sailing the rest of the way.
a few of them.
● Make eye contact with members of your non-verbal).
audience. Remember that they are individual 3. Channel. It is the means by which a message
people, not a blur of faces. And they are your is communicated. When you pick up the phone
friends. to call a friend, the telephone is your channel.
Public speakers may use one or more several
● Concentrate on communicating with your channels, each of which will affect the message
audience rather than worrying about your stage received by the audience. Examples are
fright. If you get caught up in your speech, your television, radio, and a direct channels.
audience will too.
● Use visual aids. They create interest, draw 4. Listener. The listener is the person who
attention away from you, and make you feel less receives the communicated message from the
self-conscious. speaker. Without a listener, there is no
Public Speaking and Critical Thinking communication. Everything as speaker says is
filtered through listener’s frame of reference.
What is critical thinking? To some extent, it is a
matter of logic – of being able to spot frame of reference – the sum of a person’s
weaknesses in other people’s arguments and to knowledge, experience, goals, values, and
avoid them in your own. It also involves related attitudes. No two people can have exactly the
skills such as distinguishing fact from opinion, same frame of reference
judging the credibility of statements, and
assessing the soundness of evidence. In the 5. Feedback. Communication is a two-way
broadest sense, critical thinking is focused, process. Listeners do not simply absorb
organized thinking – the ability to see clearly the messages like human sponges. They send back
relationships among ideas. messages of their own. Feedback is the message,
critical thinking – focused, organized thinking usually nonverbal, sent from a listener to a
about such things as the logical relationships speaker.
among ideas, the soundness of evidence, and the 6. Interference. It is anything that impedes the
differences between fact and opinion communication of a message. Interference can
The Speech Communication Process be external or internal to the listeners.
As you begin your first speeches, you may find internal interference – this comes from within
it helpful to understand what goes on when one your audience. Examples are an audience having
person talks to another. Regardless of the kind a toothache, pain, worrying about a test in the
of speech communication involved, there are next class period, or someone could be brooding
seven elements – speaker, message, channel, about an argument with his girlfriend.
listener, feedback, interference, and situation. external interference – these happens outside
1. Speaker. Speech communication begins with you audience such as traffic outside the building,
a speaker. He/she is the person who is the clatter of a radiator, students conversing in
presenting an oral message to a listener. the hall, and a room that is stifling or freezing
2. Message. It is whatever a speaker cold.
communicates to someone else. Your goal in
public speaking is to have your intended 7. Situation. It is the time and place in which
message that is actually communicated. speech communication occurs. Conversation
Achieving this depends both on what you say always takes place in a certain situation. Public
(the verbal message) and on how you say it (the speakers must be alert to the situation. Certain
occasions – funeral, church services, graduation ● Houston has two radio stations that broadcast
ceremonies – require certain kinds of speeches. solely in Vietnamese and a daily newspaper that
Physical setting is important. It makes a great prints in Chinese.
deal of difference whether a speech is presented
indoors or out, in a small classroom or in a ● Nearly 60 percent of the people in Miami were
gymnasium, to a densely packed crowd or to a born outside the United States.
handful of scattered souls. ● More than 47 million people in the U.S. speak
Public Speaking in a Multicultural World a language other than English at home. These
kinds of developments are not limited to the
CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN THE MODERN United States. We live in an age of international
WORLD multiculturalism.

The United States has always been a diverse ● The internet allows for instant communication
society. In 1673, a visitor to what is now New everywhere around the world.
York City was astonished to find that 18
languages were spoken among the city’s 8,000 ● CNN is a broadcasted to more than 1 billion
inhabitants. By the middle of the 19th century, people globally.
so many people from so many lands had come to ● International air travel has made national
the United States that novelist Herman Melville boundaries almost meaningless.
exclaimed. “You cannot spill a drop of
American blood without spilling the blood of the ● There are 77,000 transnational corporations
whole world.” around the world, and they account for more
One can only imagine what Melville would say than 30 percent of the world’s economic output.
today. The United States has become the most
diverse society on earth. For more than a ● McDonald’s sells twice as many hamburgers
century, most immigrants to the U.S. were and French fries abroad that it does in the United
Europeans – Irish, Germans, English, States.
Scandinavians, Greeks, Poles, Italians, and
● Nike makes 63 percent of its sales through
others. Together with African Americans, they
exports.
made America the “melting pot” of the world.
Today, another great wave of immigration – ● France has as many Muslims as practicing
mostly from Asia and Latin America – has Catholics.
transformed the United States into what one
writer calls “the first universal nation”, a ● Radio CHIN in Toronto, Canada broadcasts in
multicultural society of unmatched diversity. 31 languages.

The diversity of life in the United States can be

seen in cities and towns, schools and business, ETHICS AND PUBLIC SPEAKING
community groups, and houses of worship all
The goal of public speaking is to gain a desired
across the land. Consider the following:
response from listeners – but not at any cost.
● There are 195 nations in the world, and every Speechmaking is a form of power and therefore
one of them has someone living in the United carries with it heavy ethical responsibilities. As
States. the Roman rhetorician Quintilian stated 2,000
years ago, the ideal of speechmaking is the good
person speaking well. In this chapter, we explore spoken word need to be guided by a strong sense
the ideal by looking at the importance of ethics of ethical integrity.
in public speaking, the ethical obligations of As a public speaker, you will face ethical issues
speakers and listeners, and the practical problem at every stage of the speechmaking process –
of plagiarism and how to avoid it. from the initial decision to speak through the
final presentation of the message. And the
THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS answers will not be easy.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals
with issues of right and wrong in human affairs. ethical decision – sound ethical decisions
Questions of ethics arise whenever we ask involve weighing potential course of action
whether a course of action is normal or immoral, against a set of ethical standards or guidelines
fair or unfair, just or unjust, honest or dishonest.
ethics – the branch of philosophy that deals with GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL SPEAKING
issues of right and wrong in human affairs 1. Make sure your goals are ethically sound.
Your first responsibility as a speaker is to ask
We face such questions daily in almost every whether your goals are ethically sound. As with
part of our lives such as: other ethical issues, there can be gray areas
when it comes to assessing a speaker’s goals –
● the parent must decide how to deal with a areas in which reasonable people with well-
child who has been sent home from school for defined standards of right and wrong can
unruly behavior legitimately disagree. But this is not a reason to
avoid asking ethical questions. If you are to be a
● the researcher must decide whether to shade
responsible public speaker, you cannot escape
her data “just a bit” in order to gain credit for an
assessing the ethical soundness of your goals.
important scientific breakthrough
2. Be fully prepared for each speech. Jenkin
● the shopper must decide what to do with the Lloyd states that “a speech is a solemn
$5 extra change mistakenly given by the clerk at responsibility”. You have an obligation – to
the grocery store yourself and to your listeners – to prepare fully
● the student must decide whether to say every time you stand in front of an audience.
anything about a friend he has seen cheating on The obligation to yourself is obvious: The better
a final exam you prepare, the better your speech will be.
Being prepared for a speech involves everything
Questions of ethics also come into play from analyzing your audience to creating visual
whenever a public speaker faces an audience. In aids, organizing your ideas to rehearsing your
an ideal world, as the Greek philosopher Plato delivery. Most crucial from an ethical
noted, all public speakers would be truthful and standpoint, though, is being fully informed about
devoted to the good of society. Yet, history tells your subject.
us that the power of speech is often abused – 3. Be honest in what you say. Nothing is more
sometimes with disastrous results. important to ethical speechmaking than honesty.
Public speaking rests on the unspoken
Adolf Hitler was unquestionably a persuasive
assumption that “words can be trusted, and
speaker. His oratory galvanized the German
people will be truthful”. Without this
people, but his aims were horrifying, and his
assumption, there is no basis for communication,
tactics were despicable. He remains to this day
no reason for one person to believe anything that
the ultimate example of why the power of the
another says. Such blatant contempt for the truth
is one kind of dishonesty in public speaking but Plagiarism comes from plagiarius, the Latin
more subtle forms of dishonesty are just as word for kidnapper. To plagiarize means to
unethical. The following violates the speaker’s present another person’s language or ideas as
duty to be accurate and fair in presenting your own – to give the impression you have
information: written or thought yourself when you have
● juggling statistics actually taken it from someone else.
● quoting out of context plagiarism – presenting another person’s
● misrepresenting sources language or ideas as one’s own
● painting tentative findings as firm conclusions Kinds of Plagiarism
● portraying a few details as the whole story 1. Global plagiarism. The most blatant – and
● citing unusual cases as typical examples unforgivable – kind of plagiarism. It is grossly
● substituting innuendo and half-truths for unethical. It is stealing your speech entirely form
evidence and proof another source and passing it of as your own.
While on the subject of honesty in
speechmaking, we should also note that ethically 2. Patchwork plagiarism. Unlike global
responsible speakers do not present other plagiarism, in which a pirates an entire speech
people’s words as their own. They do not from a single source, patchwork plagiarism
plagiarize their speeches. occurs when a speaker pilfers from two or three
sources.
4. Avoid name-calling and other forms of
abusive language. Words may not literally break 3. Incremental plagiarism. It is when the entire
people’s bones, but they can leave psychological speech is cribbed more or less verbatim from a
scars as surely as sticks and stones can leave single source or a few sources. It occurs when
physical scars. As one writer explains, “Our the speaker fails to give credit for particular
identities, who and what we are, how others see parts – increments – of the speech that are
us, are greatly affected by the names we are borrowed from other people.
called and the words with which we are labeled. 3.1. Quotations. Whenever you quote someone
name-calling – It is the use of language to directly, you must attribute the words to that
defame, demean, or degrade individuals or person. It would make a strong addition to your
groups. Such terms have been used to debase speech as long as you acknowledge the
people because of their sexual orientation, owners/authors.
religious beliefs, and ethnic background. It 3.2. Paraphrases. When you paraphrase an
includes epithets. author, you restate or summarize her or his in
epithets – words such as “fag”, “kike”, “nigger”, your own words. You need to acknowledge the
“honkey”, “wop”, “jap”, “chink”, and “spic” author or the person because still, with just a fair
amount of his/her language, you are still using
5. Put ethical principles into practice. It is easy his/her opinions, ideas, and judgment.
to pay lip service to the importance of ethics. It GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL LISTENING
is much harder to act ethically. Yet, that is just 1. Be courteous and attentive. Listeners have a
what the responsible public speaker must do. As responsibility to be courteous and attentive
one popular book on ethics states, “Being ethical during the speech. This responsibility – which is
means behaving ethically all the time – not only a matter of civility – is especially important in
when it is convenient”. speech class. You and your classmates are in a
learning situation in which you need to support
PLAGIARISM
one another. When you listen to speech classes, we usually grasp only 50% of what we hear.
give your fellow students the same courtesy and After 24 hours, we can remember only 10
attention you want from them. percent of the original message. It is little
2. Avoid prejudging the speaker. Do not judge a wonder that listening has been called a lost art.
speech by the name, race, lifestyle, appearance,
or reputation of the speaker. The National LISTENING IS IMPORTANT
Communication Association states that Even if you do not plan to be corporate
“listeners should strive to understand and respect executive, the art of listening can be helpful in
speakers before evaluating and responding to almost every part of your life. This is not
their messages”. Your aim is to listen carefully surprising when you realize that people spend
to the speaker’s ideas, to assess the evidence and more time listening than doing any other
reasoning offered in support of those ideas, and communicative activity – more than reading,
to reach an intelligent judgement about the more than writing, more even than speaking.
speech. A number of studies have shown a strong
3. Maintain the free and open expression of correlation between listening and academic
ideas. A democratic society depends on the free success. Students with the highest grades are
and open expression of ideas. Just as public usually those with the strongest listening skills.
speakers need to avoid name-calling and other the reverse is also true – students with the lowest
tactics that can undermine free speech, so grades are usually those with the weakest
listeners have an obligation to maintain the right listening skill. Employers and employees,
of speakers to be heard. parents and children, wives and husbands,
4. Be Prepared to Listen doctors and patients, students and teachers – all
depend on the apparently simple skill of
5. Avoid Prejudging and Keep an Open Mind listening. Regardless of your profession or walk
of life, you never escape the need for a well-
6. Be Courteous and Pay Attention trained ear. Listening is also important to you as
a speaker. It is probably the way you get most of
7. Providing Feedback
your ideas and information – from television,
8. Avoid Distractions radio, conversation, and lectures. If you do not
listen well, you will not understand what you
9. Ethical Listeners evaluate the messages hear and may pass along your misunderstanding
presented to them to others.

Besides, in class – as in life – you will listen to

many more speeches than you give. It is only
LISTENING
fair to pay close attention to your classmates’
Not listening does not mean we do not hear. speeches; after all; you want them to listen
Hearing is a physiological process, involving the carefully to your speeches. An excellent way to
vibration of sound waves on our eardrums and improve your own speeches is to listen
the firing of electrochemical impulses from the attentively to the speeches of other people. Over
inner ear to the central auditory system of the and over, teachers find that the best speakers are
brain. Meanwhile, listening involves paying usually the best listeners. A side benefit of your
close attention to, and making sense of, what we speech class is that it offers an ideal opportunity
here. Even we think we are listening carefully, to work on the art of listening. During the 95
percent of the time when you are not speaking, ● distinguishing main points from minor points
you have nothing else to do but listen and learn.
You can sit there like a stone – or you can use Other skills of critical thinking are especially
the time profitably to master a skill that will important in critical listening. These are:
serve you in thousand ways. ● separating facts from opinions
4 Qualities of Active Listening ● spotting weaknesses from in reasoning
1. Active Listening involves non verbal ● judging the soundness of evidence
communication
When your mind is not actively involved, you
2. Active Listening involves verbal may be hearing, but not listening. Listening and
communication critical thinking are so closely allied that
3. Active Listening involves responding to what training in listening is also training in how to
somebody just said think.

4. Keep the focus on them and let them talk FOUR CAUSES OF POOR LISTENING

LISTENING AND CRITICAL THINKING 1. Not concentrating. The brain is incredibly

One of the ways listening can serve you is by efficient. Although we talk at a rate of 120 to
enhancing your skills as a critical thinker. We 150 words a minute. The brain can process 400
can identify four kinds of listening: to 800 words a minute. This would seem to
make listening very easy, but actually it has the
● Appreciative listening – for pleasure or opposite effect. Because we can process a
enjoyment, as we listen to music, to a comedy speaker’s words and still have plenty of spare
routine, or to an entertaining speech. “brain time”, we are tempted to interrupt our
listening by thinking about other things. There
● Empathic listening – to provide emotional come points at which it is so easy to let your
support for the speaker, as when a psychiatrist thoughts wander rather than to concentrate on
listens to a patient or when we lend a what is being said.
sympathetic ear to a friend in distress. spare brain time – the difference between the
● Comprehensive listening – to understand the rate at which most people talk (120 to 150 words
message of a speaker, as when we attend a a minute) and the rate at which the brain can
classroom lecture or listen to directions for process language (400 to 800 words a minute).
finding a friend’s house.
2. Listening too hard. This happens when we
● Critical listening – to evaluate a message for turn into human sponges, soaking up a speaker’s
purposes of accepting or rejecting it, as when we every word as if every word were equally
listen to the sales pitch of a used-car dealer or important. We try to remember all the names, all
the campaign speech of a political candidate. the dates, all the places. In the process, we often
Critical thinking involves a number of skills. miss the speaker’s main point. What is worse,
The following skills are central to we may end up confusing the facts as well.
comprehensive listening: 3. Jumping to conclusions. This happens when
we put words into a speaker’s mouth. We are so
● summarizing information
sure we know what they mean, we do not listen
● recalling facts to what they say. We also prematurely reject a
speaker’s ideas as boring or misguided. We may will come next, and measure what the speaker
decide early on that a speaker has nothing says against what you had anticipated.
valuable to say. Whether it be the information,
point of view, or technique, you are cheating 4. Do not be diverted by appearance or delivery.
yourself if you prejudge the speaker and choose You must be willing to set aside preconceived
not to listen. judgements based on a person’s looks or manner
of speech. Do not let negative feelings about a
4. Focusing on delivery and personal speaker’s appearance or delivery keep you from
appearance. This happens when we judge people listening to the message. Try not to be misled if
by the way they look or speak and do not listen the has an unusually attractive appearance. It is
to what they say. It is easy to become distracted all easy to assume that because someone is
by a speaker’s accent, personal appearance, or good-looking and has a polished delivery, he or
vocal mannerisms and lose sight of the message. she is speaking eloquently. Some of the most
Focusing on a speaker’s delivery or personal unscrupulous speakers in the history have been
appearance is one of the major sources of handsome people with hypnotic delivery skills.
interference in the communication process, and again, be sure you respond to the message, not
it is something we always need to guard against. to the package it comes in.

HOW TO BECOME A BETTER LISTENER 5. Suspend judgment. We should hear people

1. Take listening seriously. The first step out before reaching a final judgement. Try to
towards becoming a better listener is to accord understand their point of view. Listen to their
listening the seriousness it deserves. Good ideas, examine their evidence, assess their
listeners are not born that way. They have reasoning, then make up your mind. The aim of
worked hard at learning how to listen active listening is to set aside “one’s own
effectively. Good listening does not go hand in prejudices, frames of reference and desires so as
hand with intelligence, education, or social to experience as far as possible the speaker’s
standing. Like any other skills, it comes from world from the inside”. It has been said more
practice and self-discipline. than once that anclosed mins is an empty mind.

2. Be an active listener. When listening to a 6. Focus your listening. Skilled listeners do not
speech, you should not allow yourself to be try to absorb a speaker’s every word. Rather,
distracted by internal or external interference, they focus on specific things in a speech. Here
and do not prejudge the speaker. Take listening are three suggestions to help you focus your
seriously and do your best to stay focused on the listening.
speaker and his/her message. 6.1. Listen for Main Points. As with any speech,
active listening – giving undivided attention to a main points are the most important things to
speaker in a genuine effort to understand the listen for. Most speeches contain from two to
speaker’s point of view. four main points.

3. Resist distractions. We cannot eliminate all 6.2. Listen for Evidence. Identifying the main
physical and mental distractions because we points is not enough, we should look for
think so much faster than a speaker can talk. If evidences that support the claims. We should be
this happens, make a conscious effort to pull on guard against unfounded assertions and
your mind back to what the speaker is saying, sweeping generalizations. Keep an eye out for
then force it to stay there. Try to anticipate what the speaker’s evidence and for its accuracy,
objectivity, relevance, and sufficiency
6.3. Listen for Techniques. If you want to (2) subjects you want to know more about.
become an effective speaker, you should study
the methods other people use to speak TOPIC YOU KNOW A LOT ABOUT
effectively. Analyze the methods he/she used in Most people speak best about subjects with
his/her introduction to gain attention, to relate to which they are most familiar. When thinking
the audience, and to establish credibility and about a topic, draw on your own knowledge and
goodwill. Study the speaker’s language – its experience. Everyone knows things or has done
accuracy, vividness, and appropriateness. Also, things that can be used in a speech. Think for a
focus on the speaker’s strengths and moment about unusual experiences you may
weaknesses. Identify why she/he is effective or have had or special expertise you may have
not, then try to ask why. acquired. Here are examples of speech topics
7. Develop note-taking skills. Note-taking is a based largely on the students’ personal
surefire way to improve your concentration and knowledge and experience:
keep track of a speaker’s ideas. It accurately
summarizes the speaker’s ideas. It is very clear. - The Basic of Backpacking
By separating main points from subpoints and
evidence, it will show the relationships among - Making a Difference: The Peace Corps
the speaker’s ideas. Key-word outline is best for - A Tour of Old Jerusalem
listening to classroom and formal speeches. - Performing with the Native American Dance
Troupe
key-word outline – an outline that briefly notes a - How to Have a Successful Job Interview
speaker’s main points and supporting evidence
in rough outline form. TOPICS YOU WANT TO KNOW MORE
ABOUT
This happens when you decide to make your
SELECTING TOPIC AND A PURPOSE speech a learning experience for yourself and or
your audience. You may choose a subject about
Choosing a Topic which you already have some knowledge or
The first step to speechmaking is choosing a expertise but not enough to prepare a speech
topic. For speeches outside the classroom, this is without doing additional research. You may
seldom a problem. Usually, the speech topic is even select a topic that you want to explore for
determined by the occasion, the audience, and the first time. This would be a perfect
the speaker’s qualification. In a public speaking opportunity to research a fascinating subject and
class, the situation is different. Students have turn it into a fascinating speech. For persuasive
great leeway in selecting topics. This would speeches, you may think of the subjects about
appear to be an advantage, since it allows you to which you hold strong opinions and beliefs.
talk about matters of personal interest. Yet, there
are may be no facet of speech preparation that BRAINSTORMING FOR TOPICS
causes more gnashing of teeth than selecting a If you are having trouble selecting a topic, there
topic. are a number of brainstorming procedures you
can follow to get started.
topic – it is the subject of the speech brainstorming – a method of generating ideas for
There are two broad categories of potential speech topics by free association of words and
topics for your classroom speeches: ideas.
(1) you know a lot about and
1. Personal Inventory. First, make a quick 2. To persuade. When your general purpose is to
inventory of your experiences, interests, persuade, you act as an advocate or a partisan.
hobbies, skills, beliefs, and so forth. Jot down You go beyond giving information to espousing
anything that comes to mind, no matter how a cause. You want to change or structuralize the
silly or irrelevant it may seem. From this list attitudes or actions of your audience. Your
may come a general subject area out of which primary goal is to win over your listeners to
you can fashion a specific topic. your point of view – to get them to believe
2. Clustering. If the first method does not work, something or do something as a result of your
try to use clustering – wherein you take a sheet speech.
of paper and divide it into nine columns as
follows: people, places, things, events, DETERMINING THE SPECIFIC PURPOSE
processes, concepts, natural phenomena, Once you have chosen a topic and a general
problems, and plans and policies. Then, in each purpose, you must narrow your choices to
column, list the first five or six items that come determine the specific purpose of your speech.
to mind. The specific purpose should focus on one aspect
3. Reference Search. This is done by browsing of a topic. You should be able to state your
through an encyclopedia, a periodical database, specific purpose in a single infinitive phrase (to
or some other reference work until you come inform my audience about …; to persuade my
across what might be a good speech topic. One audience to …) that indicates precisely what you
example is limiting yourself to letter b of the hope to accomplish with your speech.
Meriam-Webster Dictionary. In just within 10 specific purpose – a single infinitive phrase that
minutes, you can come up with potential topics. states precisely what a speaker hopes to
4. Internet Search. Another possibility is to accomplish in his/her speech
connect a subject-based search engine such as
google, Yahoo!, or the Librarians’ Index to the Tips for Formulating the Specific Purpose
internet. One of the advantages of using the Statement
internet in this way is that you can make your
search more and more specific until you find just 1. Write the purpose statement as a full infinitive
the right subject. phrase, not as a fragment. The ineffective
statement is adequate as an announcement of the
DETERMINING THE GENERAL PURPOSE speech topic, but it is not thought out fully
Along with choosing a topic, you need to enough to indicate the specific purpose.
determine the general purpose of your speech.
Usually, it will fall into one of two overlapping 2. Express your purpose as a statement, not as a
categories – to inform or to persuade. question. The question might arouse the
curiosity of an audience, but it is not effective as
general purpose – the broad goal of a speech. a specific purpose statement. It gives no
indication about what direction the speech will
1. To inform. When your general purpose is to take or what the speaker hopes to accomplish.
inform, you act as a teacher or lecturer. Your
goal is to convey information clearly, accurately, 3. Avoid figurative language in your purpose
and interestingly. Your aim is to enhance the statement. Although the ineffective statement
knowledge and understanding of your listeners – indicates something of the speaker’s viewpoint,
to give them information they did not have it does not state concisely what he or she hopes
before. to achieve. Figurative language can reinforce
ideas within a speech, but it is too dangerous for interests, ideas, and values. And most of them
a specific statement. are intellectually curious. They can get involved
in an astonishing variety of subjects. Follow
4. Limit your purpose statement to one distinct your common sense and make sure you are truly
idea. There are purpose statements that express interested in the topic. When speaking on a
two unrelated ideas, either of which could be the subject that is not obviously relevant to your
subject of the speech. The easiest remedy is to listeners, find a way to tie it in with their goals,
select one or the other as a focus for your values, interests, and well-being.
presentation. 4. Is the purpose too trivial for my audience? –
Just as you need to avoid speech topics that are
5. Make sure your specific purpose is not too
too broad or complicated, so you need to steer
vague or general. An ineffective purpose
clear of topics that are too superficial.
statement falls into one of the most common
Unfortunately, there is no absolute rule for
traps – it is too broad and ill-defined. It gives no
determining what is trivial to an audience and
clues about what the speaker believes should be
what is not.
done about the topic. The more effective
5. Is the purpose too technical for my audience?
purpose statement is sharp and concise. It
– Nothing puts an audience to sleep faster than a
reveals clearly what speaker plans to discuss.
dry and technical speech. Beware of topics that
Questions to Ask about Your Specific Purpose are inherently technical and of treating ordinary
Sometimes, you will arrive at your specific subjects in a technical fashion. There are aspects
purpose almost immediately after choosing your of subjects that can be treated clearly, with a
topic. At other times, you may do quite a bit of minimum of jargon. If you find that you cannot
research before deciding on a specific purpose. fulfill your purpose without relying on technical
Much will depend on how familiar you are with words and concepts, you should reconsider your
the topic, as well as on any special demands purpose.
imposed by the assignment, the audience, or the
PHRASING THE CENTRAL IDEA
occasion. But whenever you settle on your
The specific purpose of a speech is what you
specific purpose, ask yourself the following
hope to accomplish. The central idea is a concise
questions about it:
statement of what you expect to say. Sometimes,
1. Does my purpose meet the assignment? –
it is called the thesis statement, the subject
Students occasionally stumble over this
sentence, or the major thought. Whatever the
question. Be sure you understand your
term, the central idea is usually expressed as a
assignment and shape your specific purpose to
simple, declarative sentence that refines and
meet it. If you have questions, check with your
sharpens the specific purpose statement.
instructor/lecturer.
central idea – a one-sentence statement that
2. Can I accomplish my purpose in the time
sums up or encapsulates the major ideas of a
allotted? – Most classroom speeches are quite
speech.
short, ranging from four to ten minutes. Most
people speak at an average rate of 120 to 150 Another way to think of the central idea is as
words a minute. This means that a six -minute your residual message.
speech will consist of roughly 720 to 900 words. residual message – what a speaker wants the
audience to remember after it has forgotten
3. Is the purpose relevant to my audience? –
everything else in a speech.
Most students have wide-ranging backgrounds,
Guidelines for the Central Idea
What makes a well-worded central idea?
Essentially the same things that make a well-
worded specific purpose statement. The central
idea:
(1) should be expressed in s full sentence;
(2) should not be in the form of a question;
(3) should avoid figurative language; and,
(4) should not be vague or overly general.