First Order Logic - Lecture 1

First Order Logic (FOL)
CHAPTER 8
© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

Problem of propositional logic
➢ Propositional logic has limited expressive power
◦ Unlike natural language
◦ E.g., cannot say “All pits cause breezes in adjacent squares“ in one sentence
◦ except by writing one sentence for each square
➢ Consider the following sentence, which we cannot represent using propositional logic.
1) "Some humans are intelligent"
2) “men likes Football."
First Order Logic (FOL) -1
➢ First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.
➢ It is an extension to propositional logic.
➢ It is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic

➢ Propositional logic assumes the world contains facts, While First-order logic (like natural language) assumes the
world contains:
➢ Objects: people, houses, numbers, colors, baseball games, pits, Wumpus, …
➢ Relations:
➢ unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent,
➢ n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, brother of, bigger than, part of, …
➢ Functions: father of, best friend, one more than, plus, …

First Order Logic (FOL) -2
➢ Let's consider the statements:
Rana is female
Ali is male
Rana and Ali are siblings
➢In propositional logic the above statements are atomic propositions:

➢ Rana-is-female P , Ali-is-male Q • Rana-and-Ali-are-siblings Z
➢ In FOL atomic statements use predicates, with constants as argument:

➢ Female(Rana) • Male(Ali) • Siblings(Rana, Ali)

Syntax of FOL: basic elements
Constant 1, 2, Red, Ahmad, Amman, cat,....
Variables x, y, z, a, b,....
Predicates Brother, Father,....
Function sqrt, Legs, ....
Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔
Equality ==
Quantifier ∀, ∃
FOL Sentences - 1
➢ Atomic sentences : These sentences are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a
sequence of terms.
Syntax: Predicate (term1, [term2, ......, term n]).
Example:
Ahmad and Ali are brothers => Brothers(Ahmad, Ali).
BMW is a Car: => Car (BMW).

FOL Sentences -2
➢ Complex Sentences: These sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using
connectives (∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔).
➢¬S1
➢ S1 ∧ S2
➢ S1 ∨ S2
➢ S1 ⇒ S2
➢ S1 ⇔ S2
Hint: S1 and S2 are atomic sentences
➢ Example: Brothers(Ahmad, Ali) ^ Father(Shadi, Ali) ⇒ Father(Shadi, Ahmad) .

Quantifiers in First-order logic
➢ A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification (∀, ∃)
➢ There are two types of quantifier:
1. Universal Quantifier ∀, (for all, everyone, everything)
➢ If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as: For all x, For each x, or For every x.
➢ Syntax :
∀⟨variable(s)⟩ ⟨sentence⟩
2. Existential quantifier ∃, (for some, at least one).
➢If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as: There exists a 'x.’, For
some 'x.’, or For at least one ‘x.’
➢Syntax
∃ ⟨variable(s) ⟩ ⟨sentence⟩

Quantifiers in First-order logic
➢Examples
➢ All man drink coffee. ∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee). Points to remember:
• The main connective for universal
quantifier ∀ is implication →.
➢ Some boys are intelligent. ∃x boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)
• The main connective for existential
➢ All birds fly. ∀x bird(x) →fly(x). quantifier ∃ is and ∧.

A Common Mistake to Avoid
● Typically, ⇒ is the main connective with ∀
● Common mistake: using ∧ as the main connective with ∀:
Example :
∀x At(x, TTU) ∧ Smart(x)
means “Everyone is at TTU and everyone is smart”
● Correct ∀x At(x, TTU) ⇒ Smart(x)

means “For everyone, if he/she is at TTU, then he/she is smart”

Another Common Mistake to Avoid
● Typically, ∧ is the main connective with ∃
● Common mistake: using ⇒ as the main connective with ∃:
∃ x At(x, TTU) ⇒ Smart(x)
is true if there is anyone who is not at TTU
● Correct ∃ x At(x, TTU) ∧ Smart(x)
is true if there is someone who is at TTU and smart

More Examples: Representing Facts in
First-Order Logic
1. Ahmad is a professor prof(Ahmad)
2. All professors are people. ∀ x ( prof(x) → people(x) )
3. Khalid is the dean. dean(Kalid)
4. Deans are professors. ∀ x (dean(x) → prof(x))
5. Everyone is a friend of someone. ∀ x (∃ y ( friend(x, y) ) )
6. Ahmad criticized Khalid . criticize(Ahmad, Khalid )
7. People only criticize people that are not their friends.
∀ x (∀ y (person(x) ^ person(y) ^ criticize (x,y) → ¬ friend (y,x)))

Properties of quantifiers
➢ x y is the same as y x
➢ x y is the same as y x
➢ x y is not the same as y x
➢x y Loves(x,y)
➢ “There is a person who loves everyone in the world”
➢y x Loves(x,y)
➢ “Everyone in the world is loved by at least one person”
➢Quantifier duality: each can be expressed using the other

➢ x Likes(x,IceCream) → x Likes(x,IceCream)
➢ x Likes(x, IceCream) → x Likes(x, IceCream)

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First Order Logic (FOL)

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

➢ It is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic

➢ Objects: people, houses, numbers, colors, baseball games, pits, Wumpus, …

➢ Functions: father of, best friend, one more than, plus, …

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

➢In propositional logic the above statements are atomic propositions:

➢ In FOL atomic statements use predicates, with constants as argument:

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

Predicates Brother, Father,....

Function sqrt, Legs, ....

BMW is a Car: => Car (BMW).

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

➢ Example: Brothers(Ahmad, Ali) ^ Father(Shadi, Ali) ⇒ Father(Shadi, Ahmad) .

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

2. Existential quantifier ∃, (for some, at least one).

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

● Correct ∀x At(x, TTU) ⇒ Smart(x)

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

© DR. JAMIL AL-SAWWA

➢Quantifier duality: each can be expressed using the other

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