INVERTER SELECTION

The selection of the inverter for the installation will

depend on:
• The energy output of the array
• The matching of the allowable inverter string configurations
with the size of the array in kW and the size of the individual
modules within that array
• Whether the system will have one central inverter or
multiple (smaller) inverters
 INVERTER SIZING
Inverters currently available are typically rated for:

• Maximum DC input power. i.e. the size of the array in peak watts.

• Maximum DC input current.

• Maximum specified output power. i.e. the AC power they can

provide to the grid.
 Inverter Sizing Example
The array comprises 16 of the 160Wp crystalline modules.
Therefore the array peak power = 16 x 160 = 2.56kW
Should the inverter be rated 2.56kW?
Inverter with Crystalline Module
Based on figures of :
• 0.95 for manufacturer,
• 0.95 for dirt and
• 0.85 for temperature (Based on ambient temperature of 30o C)
The derating of the array is: 0.95 x 0.95 x 0.85 =0.77
 VOLTAGE WINDOWS OF INVERTERS
• With the odd exception grid interactive inverters include
Maximum Power Point (MPP) trackers.
• Many of the inverters available will have a voltage operating
window.
• If the solar voltage is outside this window the inverter might
not operate or the output of the solar array might be greatly
reduced.
• In the case where a maximum input voltage is specified and
the array voltage is above the maximum specified then the
inverter could be damaged.
 Minimum Voltage of Inverter
TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON ARRAY VOLTAGE
• The output power of a solar module is affected by the
temperature of the solar cells. This variation in power due to
temperature is also reflected in a variation in the open circuit
voltage and maximum power point voltage.
• When the temperature is at a maximum then the Maximum
Power Point (MPP) voltage (Vmp) of the array should never
fall below the minimum operating voltage of the inverter.
• It is recommended that maximum effective cell temperature
of 70°C is used.
 Minimum Voltage of Inverter Example
The module selected has a rated MPP voltage of 35.4V
and a voltage (Vmp)co-efficient of-0.177V /°C.

An effective cell temperature of 70°C is 45° above the

STC temperature of 25°C.

Therefore the Vmp voltage would be reduced by 45 x

0.177= 7.97V
The Vmp @ 70°C would be 35.4-7.97 = 27.4V
 Minimum Voltage of Inverter Example
• If we assume a maximum voltage drop in the cables of 3%
then the voltage at the inverter for each module would be
0.97 x 27.4 = 26.6 V
• This is the effective minimum MPP voltage input at the
inverter for each module in the array.
• Assume that the minimum voltage window for an inverter is
140V. Recommended that a safety margin of 10% is used.
Minimum inverter voltage of 1.1 x 140V = 154V should be
used.
• The minimum number of modules in a string is = 154 / 26.6 =
5.79 rounded up to 6 modules
 Minimum Voltage of Inverter

- At the coldest daytime temperature the open circuit voltage

of the array shall never be greater than the maximum allowed
input voltage for the inverter.
-Therefore the lowest daytime temperature for the area
where the system is installed shall be used to determine the
maximum Voc.
 Maximum Voltage of Inverter Example
Assume the minimum effective cell temperature is 15°C, with the open
circuit voltage ( Voc ) of 43.2 V and a voltage (Voc)co-efficient of-0.14V
/°C.
An effective cell temperature of 15°C is 10° below the STC temperature of
25°C. Therefore the Voc voltage would be increased by 10 x 0.14= 1.4V
The Voc @ 15°C would be 43.2+1.4 = 44.6V
Assume the maximum voltage allowed by the inverter is 400V.
The maximum number of modules in the string, is = 400 / 44.6 = 8.96
rounded down to 8 modules
We required 16 modules. Therefore we could have two parallel strings of
8 modules.
 PV system architectures
• Different PV systems have different power handling capability and based
on this the solar PV architectures are classified as follow:

Micro (AC module) PV inverter

String PV inverter

Multi-string PV inverter

Central PV inverter
 PV system architectures
1- Micro(AC-module) configuration: Each PV module is tied to a micro-inverter; this configuration is known
as AC-module/microinverter.

Advantages
1- The losses caused due to the mismatch between the PV
modules is completely removed, because of ‘one PV module one
inverter concept’, leading to yield higher energy.
2- Sizability is high for a micro-inverter, which makes its highly
flexible.

Disadvantages: 1- However, this increases the price per watt.

2- For large-scale applications, there is a huge requirement for number of inverters.
3- Overall efficiency may decrease because of the demand for high-voltage amplification.
4- As the output of the micro-inverter is low, a DC–DC converter is to be added to boost the voltage to meet the
grid requirement.
I. PV system architectures

2- String configuration: In this configuration, since each PV string is tied to an individual inverter,
there is no use of blocking diode and so named as string configuration.

Advantages
1- This configuration has mixed advantages of both a central
inverter (simple structure) and a micro-inverter (high-energy
profit).
2- Mismatch loss is low in this configuration as MPPT is
used at the string level, thus yielding higher energy.

Disadvantages:
1- String architecture is implemented generally for applications at a medium power level (1—10 kW) in
residential applications because of its structure where each PV string is connected to an inverter.
I. PV system architectures

3- Multi-string configuration: A combination of central and string configurations yields a multi-string

inverter. In this configuration, many PV strings are connected in P with each string having its specific DC–
DC converter operating at MPP to form a PV array, and this array is then tied to a single inverter.

Advantages
1- The multistring inverter has a DC–DC converter connected
to its every string by which it all are operating at MPPT by
minimizing the mismatch loss between the PV strings.
2- This configuration also retains the characteristics of the
centralized configuration such as simple architecture as well
as cost-effective.
3- The ease of installation, maintenance, and commissioning
of multi-string inverters are making this configuration most
used in large-scale residential/ commercial applications (10–
30 kW)

Disadvantages: 1- This configuration demands more number of inverters. As multi-string inverters are designed
on the standard platform, shipping along with installation becomes much easier as compared with large central
inverters
I. PV system architectures

4. Centralized configuration: A centralized configuration is one in which a huge number of PV modules

are tied-up to a single inverter to achieve a sufficiently high voltage, as given in Figure.
To avoid reverse current under partial shading condition or block out of any PV cell, a diode is connected in
S known as blocking diode, with each PV string.

Advantages
1- Only one set of a control unit is used (comprising sensors
and a monitoring unit), it is fruitful for a large-scale
application (up to 30 kW) from an economic point of view.

2-One central inverter in a commercial/massive PV plant

Disadvantages:
1- Due to the common MPPT for entire PV arrays, there is a high level of mismatch losses. The P–V and I–V
curves have many peaks, which complicate the MPPT algorithm to precisely locate the global MPP.

2- The central inverters connected to a grid-connected system are actually rated at full power. To eliminate a full
power inverter, an extra storage system is to be embedded in a system such as ultra-capacitor.
PV system architectures
PV system architectures
 Defects in PV cells
• These modules are typically qualified to specific norms, such as IEC 61215
or IEC 61646, which are supposed to identify design, materials, and
process flaws that are likely to lead to premature failure (infant mortality).
• Furthermore, defective cells are ideally identified and rejected during the
early stages of a module’s manufacturing process, using e.g. ultrasonic
methods, thermal flux thermography or electroluminescence (EL)
imaging.
• However, the qualification tests are not designed to address wear-out
mechanisms, occurring in real field conditions, which may limit module
lifetime. Understanding these mechanisms is of utmost importance from
several perspectives:
 Defects in PV cells
• Different defects PV systems are classified as follow:

Browning of the encapsulant

Delamination
Snail trail
Bubbles
Burn marks
Cracks, lines and blemishes
 Defects in PV cells
Detection of defects by visual inspection

• Fielded photovoltaic modules are subjected to several environmental

stresses which cause the performance losses affecting the electrical and
financial performance of the system and the consumer fulfilment.

• Theses environmental stresses are due to several factors such as:

temperature, humidity, irradiation, mechanical shock, etc [6,8,36].
According to several studies, the degradation of photovoltaic modules can
be due to some mechanisms which are brought about to design failure or
defects that can emerge
 Defects in PV cells
1- Browning of the encapsulant ‫أحمرار الغالف‬
• Under irradiance, encapsulant becomes too vulnerable. In fact,
Ultraviolet light is the primary stressful factor for polymers as its high
energy content. This degradation is accompanied by a discoloration of the
encapsulant. This causes a change in the transmittance of the light
reaching the solar cells and therefore the power generated by the module
is reduced.
Some studies showed that EVA
discoloration degrades the short-circuit
current (Isc) of PV module; this degradation
of Isc may vary from 6% to 8% below the
nominal value for a partial discoloration of
the PV module surface and from 10% to
13% for complete discoloration [8]. Figure
10 shows an example of the discoloration of
EVA.
 Defects in PV cells
2- Delamination : The loss of adherence between the encapsulating polymer
and the cells or between cells and the front glass and the subsequent detachment
of these layers is called delamination. It represents a serious problem for
photovoltaic module lifetime because it can cause severe performance
degradations.
It can lead to two effects:
1- an increase of the light reflection as well as water penetration inside the module
structure (chemical reactions and degradation of different parts of the module).

2- It can also weaken and even interrupt heat

dissipation within the module to cause hot spot.
Delamination often results in the corrosion of
metals involved in the module structure and then
the resistance could increase. Fig.11 illustrates such
defect seen in UDTS-50 PV modules.
 Defects in PV cells
3.Snail trail: Snail trails are a widespread phenomenon affecting
crystalline silicon modules at outdoor exposure

During the summer and in hot climates snail

tracks seem to occur faster. It seems that
moisture is a key factor in the phenomenon.
There is a little sign that snail trails cause
significant decrease in module power . The
origin of the discoloration of the silver paste
has not been clarified. Fig.12 shows such
defect in a photovoltaic module.
 Defects in PV cells
4. Bubbles : ‫فقاعات الهواء‬
A bubble is a sort of an air chamber that is usually due to a chemical
reaction releasing some gasses. This kind of defect can result in
increase in temperature of adjacent cells because the heat is less
dissipated. However, the stains in the photo of fig.13 look like bubbles.
 Defects in PV cells
5. Burn marks: ‫عالمات أحتراق‬
Burn marks are one of the most common failures sometimes observed in silicon
modules. They are associated with parts of the module that become very hot because
of a variety of cell failures (partial shadowing, solder bond failure, failures in the
interconnection between cells, cells mismatch or other hot spots) . Solder bond
failures can be caused by thermal fatigue. As the temperature increases, the
resistance may also increase until the temperature is hot enough to discolour the
encapsulant. The photos of fig.14 show some examples of burn marks in cell-
interconnect busbar.
 Defects in PV cells
6. Other defects : Visual inspection, carried out in photovoltaic
modules, revealed some other defects which we summarize as
follows:
• Cracks, lines and blemishes: the small thickness of silicon
solar cells makes them more vulnerable to cracks. Some cracks
are very small and thus they aren’t visible to the naked eye
(micro-cracks). A crack could probably lead to chemical
reaction or a migration that affected the anti-reflective coating
and upper layers and result in a visible line. There is always a
potential risk that micro-crack can develop into longer and
wider cracks leading to a cell fraction with a performance lost.
Cracks are due to mechanical stress caused by wind and
thermo mechanical stress on the solar modules due to
temperature variations. The thermal heterogeneity of different
materials can induce cracks, bubbles and delamination under
daily thermal cycles. The photos of fig.15 show cell in module
with lines and some blemishes.