INTRODUCTION (9:00 AM)

What is geography (9:16 AM)

• Geo+graphy = description of Earth.
• Physical geography - geomorphology, climatology, oceanography, biogeography.
• Cosmology - Universe formed by - big bang (theory) - (atom-gas-star-planets
(earth)).
• Economic geography - Resources, agriculture, industry, services, transportation and
communication.
• Human Geography - Culture, different tribes, population, settlements.
• Environment and Ecology - Ecosystem, biodiversity, conservation, sustainable
development etc.
The syllabus of Geography in UPSC was discussed (9:28 AM)
• Preliminary - India and world geography - Physical, social and economic geography
of India and world.
• Mains - detailed decoding of mains syllabus.
Previous year questions discussed (9:49 AM)
• Types of questions can be expected- static and conventional questions, current
affairs based, location-based questions.
Sources (9:59 AM)
• NCERT - 11th and 12th class.
• 6th - 10th NCERTs for beginners.
• GC Leong - World physical geography. To be read selectively, only after completing
NCERTs. Focus on climate chapters (chapter 12-25). Read chapters 1- 4 once), Rest
can be skipped.
• 10th standard ICSE board book for economic geography.
• Map - Orient black swan atlas (oxford is also fine).
How to Approach geography (10:13 AM)
• Start with the basic aspects like latitude, longitude etc in order to develop interest.
• Get conceptual clarity.
• Practical application of concepts.
• Facts and information.
• Diagrams and maps.
• Connect with current affairs.
• Class notes + Handouts.
• Keep vision material as reference material.
Earth, Solar system and Universe (10:59 AM)
Lesson Plan
• The shape of the earth.
• Latitude and longitude.
• Rotation and revolution.
• Seasons.
• Time zones.
• The universe and its origin.
 • Lifecycle of a star
• Galaxies and stars.
• Origin of the solar system.
• Sun.
• Plantes, satellites and other bodies.
• Eclipses.
What is geography (11:03 AM)
• Geography is the description of the earth.
• It is the study of places and relationships between people and their environment.
• It was developed initially as a science of writing atlas.
• The term geography was coined by Eratosthenes.
• He is also called the father of geography.
The shape of the earth (11:09 AM)
• Earth is flattened along the poles and bulged along the equator.
• This shape is called an oblate spheroid or geoid.
• It is due to the continuous spinning of the earth.
• This shape of the earth was proposed for the first time by Newton.
• All other planets also have a similar shape due to continuous spinning.
Evidence to prove spherical shape of Earth (11:24 AM)
• Magellan's circumnavigation of the earth in 1519.
• Circular horizon - horizon appears circular when viewed from a ship.
• The horizon widens with an increase in altitude.
• Ships' visibility i.e., rising from the water when viewed from a distance.
• Sunrise and sunset - Different times of sunrise and sunset.
• Lunar eclipse - the circular shadow of earth falls on the moon.
• Other spherical bodies.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:00 AM)

LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES (9:11 AM)
Latitude
• The angular distance of a point on the earth's surface measures in degrees from the
centre of earth towards and north and south of Equator.
• Parallels are the imaginary lines connecting places with the same latitude.
• Parallels of latitude are always parallel to the equator and to one another.
• Length of latitude decrease from the equator to pole.
Longitude (9:29 AM)
• The angular distance of a place, east or west of prime meridian is called longitude.
• It is measured in degrees from the centre of earth towards the east or west of the
prime meridian.
 • Meridians are semi-circles running from pole to pole connecting the places with the
same longitude.
• All the meridians are of equal length and are not parallel to each other.
• The distance between two meridians decreases towards poles.
• The distance between the two one degree latitude is 111 km
• The distance between the two one degree longitude is 111 and it decreases
towards the pole.
The great circle (10:02 AM)
• A circle with the longest possible circumference was drawn on Earth and divided
into two equal halves.
• An infinite number of great circles can be drawn on earth.
• Great circles are used to find the shortest distance between two locations on the
earth.
Important Latitudes and Longitudes (10:19 AM
• The Equator = (0°).
• The Tropic of Cancer (23.5° north).
• The Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° south).
• The Arctic circle (66.5° north).
• The Antarctic circle (66.5° south).
• The North Pole (90° north).
• The South Pole (90° south)
• The prime meridian.
Rotation and Revolution (10:39 AM)
Rotation
• The movement of the earth on its own axis i.e., the spinning movement.
• The Axis of rotation is an imaginary line passing through two stationary poles and
the center of the earth around which the earth rotates.
• The orbital plane is the plane in which Earth orbits around the sun.
• The angle between the axis of rotation and the orbital place is equal to 66.5
degrees.
• The angle of the title of the axis of rotation from its normal position is 23.5 degrees.
• The direction of rotation is west to east or counterclockwise.
• Solar Day - It is the time taken for the earth to rotate on its own axis so that the sun
appears in the same position in the sky.
• The solar day is equal to 24 hours.
• Sidereal day - the time is taken to rotate on its own axis so that a distant star
appears in the same position i.e., after completing 360 degrees of rotation.
• It is equal to 23 hours 56 minutes.
The linear speed of rotation of the earth (11:32 AM)
• The linear speed of rotation of the earth is maximum along the equator and it
decreases towards poles.
• Therefore satellites are launched closer to the equator so that it provides an initial
thrust.
Circle of Illumination (11:43 AM)
• It is a circle dividing the region of data and night on the globe which separates the
illuminated side from the darker side.
Revolution (11:48 AM)
• The movement of the earth around the sun is called a revolution.
 • The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
• The period of revolution is equal to 365 days 5 hours and 48 minutes.
• The direction of revolution is counter-clockwise direction or west to east.
• The speed of rotation is equal to 1 lakh km per hour and increases as the earth
comes near to the sun.
• Perihelion - nearest position of the earth with respect to the sun.
• Aphelion - Farthest position of the earth with respect to the sun.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - SEASONS

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:10 AM)

SEASONS (9:17 AM)
• Seasons are observed on the earth because the earth revolves around the sun with
a fixed axis of rotation whose angle of inclination always remains constant.
• The change of seasons on the surface of the earth is mainly due to variation in the
length of day and the intensity of sunlight that is received at the surface.
• A season is a division of the year based on changes in weather, ecology, and the
number of daylight hours in a given region.
• On Earth, seasons are the result of Earth's orbit around the Sun and Earth's axial tilt
relative to the ecliptic plane.
Factors responsible for seasons (Explained with diagram) (9:30 AM)
• Rotation - The spinning of the Earth causes the day to turn into night.
• When the earth's axis points towards the sun, it is summer for that hemisphere.
• When the earth's axis points away, winter can be expected.
• Tilt - Earth's tilted axis causes the seasons.
• Throughout the year, different parts of Earth receive the Sun's most direct rays.
• So, when the North Pole tilts toward the Sun, it's summer in the Northern
Hemisphere.
• And when the South Pole tilts toward the Sun, it's winter in the Northern
Hemisphere.
• Revolution - The Earth's seasons are not caused by the distance from the sun, but
rather, by the tilt.
• Summer is warmer than winter because the sun's rays shine more directly than
during winter, and also because the days are longer than the nights. During the
winter, the sun's rays hit the Earth at a steeper angle, producing shorter days.
Length of
Rotation Tilt Revolution Intensity
the day
 Maximum
at the
equator.
1 X X X 24 hours
Decreases
towards
poles.

12 hours -
day
2 √ X X 1
12 hours -
night

12 hours
day and Maximum
night = = 23.5
equator. degrees
Increases North.
3 √ √ X
towards Decreases
North. towards
Decrease north and
towards south.
the south.

12 hours
day and Maximum
night = = 23.5
equator. degrees
Increases South.
4 √ √ √
towards Decreases
North. towards
Decrease north and
towards south.
the south.

Some concepts related to seasons (Explained with diagram) (11:08 AM)

Summer solstice
• It is on the 21st of June.
• The length of the day is equal to 12 hours along the equator and increases towards
the north pole and decreases towards the south pole.
 • Vertical sunrays are received exactly at the tropic of cancer.
• The intensity of sunlight decreases away from tropic of cancer towards both north
and south.
Winter solstice
• It is on 22nd December.
• The length of the day is equal to 12 hours along the equator and decreases towards
the north pole.
• The intensity of sunlight is maximum at the tropic of Capricorn i.e., 23.5 degrees
south from where it decreases towards north and south.
• The intensity of sunlight in the northern hemisphere has decreased greatly in
comparison to the summer solstice, in the southern hemisphere it has increased
greatly.
• Sunrays fall vertically at the tropic of Capricorn.
Equinox (11:40 AM)
• Spring equinox = 21 March. (Equinox dates may vary by 1 or 2 dates).
• Autumn equinox = 21 seotember.
• Equal length of day and night along all the latitudes.
• 90 degrees sun rays along the equator.
• The highest intensity was experienced along the equator and decreased uniformly
towards both the north and south poles.
Position of the overhead (11:45 AM)
• The position of the overhead sun i.e., 90 degrees always at 23.5 degrees north and
south.
• 90 degrees of sunlight is experienced for two days a year along with all the places
between tropics and for one day those places located exactly on tropics.
Polar day and Polar night (Explained with diagram) (11:53 AM)
• The position of the polar day i.e., 24 hours of sunlight increases from 90 degrees
north to 66.5 degrees north between equinox and summer.
• The position of the polar night i.e., 24 hours of darkness increases from 90 degrees
north to 66.5 degrees north between autumnal equinox and winter.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - TIME ZONES, INTERNATIONAL DATELINE AND UNIVERSE.

INTRODUCTION (9:12 AM)

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS AND DOUBTS (9:14 AM)
Previous year questions discussed (9:45 AM)
Time zones (9:51 AM)
• Region of the globe which observes uniform standard time.
• The entire globe is divided into 24 time zones with the Greenwich meridian as the
standard reference.
• From the Greenwich meridian time increases towards the east (EGA- East gain
addition) and it decreases towards the west (WLS- west loose- subtraction).
• With a change of 15 degrees of longitude, time changes by 60 minutes and with one
degree four minutes.
 • India follows the standard time zone of 82.5 degrees east.
Previous year questions discussed (10:23 AM)
A brief history of time zones (10:51 AM)
• During British rule, India followed three time zones - Calcutta, Madras and Bombay
as per the local longitude.
• In addition to this, there was chai Bagan time in Assam tea gardens.
• In 1906, India adopted 82.5 degrees as Indian standard time (IST).
• Calcutta and Bombay local time were discontinued in 1955.
• Chai Bagan is followed unofficially even now.
• France has 12 time zones, Russia has 11 time zones, the USA also has 11 time zones.
Issues in following single time zone (11:22 AM)
• A mismatch between the solar cycle and daily activities.
• Higher consumption of electricity.
Issues in following multiple time zone (11:22 AM)
• Economic integration such a banking, stock market etc.
• Disruption of transportation such as railways.
• Issues in security and communication.
International date line (11:25 AM)
• An imaginary line of demarcation on the earth running from North to South and
demarcating the change of calendar day is called an international dateline.
• It was agreed in 1884.
• IDL is not a straight line and follows a zig path to accommodate the Islands in the
Pacific oceans.
• If a person crosses IDL from west to east she or he gains a day.
• If he/she crosse IDL from east to west, he/she losses a day.
Daylight saving time (11:56 AM)
• It is the practice of shifting the time by one hour ahead by forwarding time in the
clock during summers.
• The purpose of doing so is that people will have one more hour of daylight in the
afternoon and evening during the warmer season of the year.
• The daylight saving time is followed in over 70 countries on various dates.
• India does not follow daylight saving time; countries near the Equator do not
experience high variations in daytime hours between seasons.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - UNIVERSE, FORMATION OF UNIVERSE, STARS, LIFECYCLE OF
STARS

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:17 AM)

UNIVERSE (9:25 AM)
• The limitless expanse of space surrounding earth consists of the solar system, stars,
galaxies etc.
• The universe has 100-400 billion galaxies with each galaxy containing 100-400
billion stars.
Theories about the formation of the Universe (9:35 AM)
Steady-state theory
• Steady-state theory by Fred Hoyle.
• The overall size and mass of the universe remain constant at any point in time.
• The universe has no beginning and no end.
• However, it is always expanding creating new stars and galaxies at the rate old ones
become unabsorbable.
Pulsating theory (9:42 AM)
• Univers continuously expand from one single point.
• Proposed by Arthur Eddington.
• The universe expands and contracts alternatively.
• It expands due to explosion and contracts due to gravitational pull.
• It is currently in a state of expansion.
The big bang theory (9:47 AM)
• The big bang theory was proposed by Georges Lemaître in 1927.
• According to the theory, the universe was an extremely compact, tensed and hot
singularity before 13.7 billion years.
• There was no other matter.
• There was no space and no time too.
• 13.7 billion years ago, a cosmic explosion happened called the big bang.
• From that time universe started to expand and is still continuing today.
• The expansion subsequently led to the formation of forces of physics including
gravity, elementary particles, atoms, molecules, gaseous clouds, stars, galaxies etc.
Hubble's constant (10:04 AM)
• Hubble in 1929 proposed that all observable stars and galaxies are moving away
from earth.
• He discovered this through redshift and the rate of expansion of the universe is
called the Hubble constant.
The life cycle of a star (Explained with diagram) (10:17 AM)
• Stellar Nebula - A faint cloud of gas and dust made up of hydrogen.
• The gaseous matter is pulled together gravity the entire Nebula starts to spin due to
gravitational pull.
• Protostar - When a spinning gaseous mass reaches a high temperature, it results in
a formation of the hot core and the body is called a protostar.
• Birth of a star, when the temperature crosses 15 million degrees at the core,
resulting in the nuclear fusion reaction, a star is born.
• Red giant - When the supply of hydrogen runs out at the core, it starts to contract
and simultaneously outer shell expands due to fusion reaction.
• The overall size of the star increases resulting in a red giant.
• Planetary nebula - When the mass of a star is less than ten times the mass of the
sun, its core collapses and leads to the formation of a planetary nebula which is a
spherical shell of gases with a white core.
• White dwarf - After a time, the spherical shell of gases is removed leaving behind the
white core which emits a very faint white light.
• A white dwarf is theorised to become a black dwarf.
• Red supergiant- The mass of a star is more than 10 times the sun. It resulted in a
massive red ain't called red supergiant.
 • Supernova - A red supergiant will undego supernova explosion deu to the explosion
of Iron core.
• During a supernova, a huge amount of light and energy will be released.
• Neutron star - If the remnant core after a supernova explosion is between 1.4 to 3
times the mass of the sun. It results in a neutron star which is a very high-density
body composed of closely packed neutrons.
• Blackhole - If the remnant core after the explosion is more than three times the
mass of the sun, the core collapses under gravity resulting in the formation of a
black hole.
• At the centre of a black hole, there exists a singularity with infinite gravity and
density.
GALAXIES (11:37 AM)
• It is a strolling system of gas, dust, stars held together by gravity.
• All galaxies contain a supermassive black hole at the centre.
• For example, Sagittarius is at the centre of the milky way galaxy.
Types of galaxies (11:46 AM)
• Spiral galaxy - with spiral arms and a relatively flat disk with a central bulge.
• Elliptical galaxy - spherical or oval shape with stars distributed fairly uniformly
throughout.
• Irregular galaxy - with no definite shape or structure.
Stars (11:52 PM)
• Nearest star - Proxima Centauri which is located at 4.3 light-years.
• Brightest star - Sirius.
• It is due to turbulence in the atmosphere, light from stars get deflected more as it
comes from a point source travelling a very long distance.
• The light from planets will not undergo much deflection as they are nearby as
twinkling is not observed in space.
• The distance travelled by light in one year at the speed of 3 lakh km per second.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CONTINUATION OF UNIVERSE

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:14 AM)

UNIVERSE - Doubts from last class (9:24 AM)
Constellation (9:32 AM)
• A constellation is a group of stars forming a recognizable pattern in the sky is called
a constellation.
• A star that is aligned with the axis of rotation of the earth is called a pole star.
• The position of the pole star is always fixed in the sky.
• However, the angle at which a pole star is visible varies with latitude.
• The north pole star is called Polaris.
• The south pole star is called sigma octants.
Previous year question discussion (9:47 AM)
SOLAR SYSTEM (9:58 AM)
• The solar system originated around 4.8 billion years ago.
 • The theories to explain the origin of the solar system can be classified as
evolutionary and catastrophic theories.
Evolutionary theory (10:00 AM)
• According to these theories, the material of the solar system condensed into the
sun, and simultaneously planets originated as isolated masses of matter from a
single mass of gas.
• The sun and all other planetary bodies of the solar system are of the same age.
• Gaseous Hypothesis - It was proposed by Kant.
• According to this theory, there were cold and hard particles that were
supernaturally created.
• They collided with each other due to gravitational attraction releasing heat and
gradually forming a rotating nebula kind of structure from which rings of matter
were thrown off.
• Nebula hypothesis - Proposed by Laplace.
• As per this theory, a pre-existing nebula was there in a rotating state.
• With gradual cooling, the nebula shrank and it led to more spinning and started to
heat up resulting in the formation of a flat disk, rings of matter got separated from
this disk due to centrifugal force.
• This matter condensed to form planets over a period of time.
Catastrophic theories (10:30 AM)
• These theories are also called binary theories.
• Planetesimal Hypothesis- It was proposed by Chamberlin and Moulton.
• There existed a protostar accompanied by a companion star.
• A companion star cam near the protostar the gravitational pull led to the ejection of
matter from the protostar.
• The small particles from this matter condensed to form planetesimals which over a
period of time merged together to evolve into planets.
• Tidal Hypothesis - proposed by Jeans and Jeffery.
• It proposes a very big star that came near to the sun and the gravitational pull led
to the ejection of tides of material which over a period of time formed planets.
Sun (Explained with diagram) (11:07 AM)
• Core - the temperature is more than 15 million degrees celsius.
• Nuclear fusion reaction continuously releases energy.
• Radiative zone - The energy from the core is carried outward by radiations through
this zone.
• Convective zone - Where the convection currents transfer the heat to the sun's
atmosphere.
• Photosphere - is called so because the visible light components of the sun's
radiation are originated here.
• It is the lowest layer of the sun's atmosphere.
• It is the brightest layer of the sun.
• The temperature is around 5500 degrees celsius.
• Chromosphere - It is the intermediate layer of the sun's atmosphere which appears
like a red rim during a total solar eclipse.
• Corona - Th outermost layer.
• It is visible only during a total solar eclipse.
• Temperature is 2 million degrees celsius.
Terms (11:29 AM)
 • Solar flare - A sudden outburst of a storm of hot atoms and magnetic energy
released into space is called a solar flare.
• Sunspots - These are the dark portions of the sun's photosphere.
• They have reduced temperature to nearly 3800 degrees celsius but a strong
magnetic activity.
• The number of sunspots on the sun's surface increases or decreases over a period
of time of 11 years.
• Solar maxima - When the sunspots are highest it is called solar maxima.
• Solar minima - when sunspots are lowest.
Plantes (11:41 AM)
Difference between Jovian and Terrestrial planets
Terrestrial
Jovian planets
planets
Jupiter-like Earth-like
planets. planets.
Gaseous in
Rocky in nature.
nature.
Weak solar Strong solar
wind. wind.

Large in size. Smaller in size.

A large number No or few

of satellites. satellites.
They have These do not
rings. have rings.
Thick
Thin atmosphere.
atmosphere.
Beyond the
Within the
atmosphere
asteroid belt.
belt.

Lighter. Denser planets.

Colder. Hotter.

Higher speed of Lesser speed of

rotation. rotation.
Planets of our solar system (11:54 AM)
• Mercury - It is the smallest planet of all. No atmosphere due to strong solar winds.
• Venus - Also called earth's twin. A gas called phosphine is recently found in venus.
• Earth - densest planet. Also called the blue planet.
• Mars - It is called the red planet. There is a possibility of life a the temperature is
extreme.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CONTINUATION OF PLANETS
INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:29 AM)
Solar system and Planets (9:35 AM)
• Mars - It is in the goldilocks zone.
• Jupiter - Largest planet. It is 11 times bigger than earth. The huge red spot is its
distinct feature.
• Saturn - It is the highest planet with a density lighter than that of water.
• Uranus - The angle of tilt of Uranus is 98 degrees.
• Neptune - It is the farthest planet and is the only planet not visible to naked eyes. It
is called the smaller twin of Uranus.
Satellites (9:55 AM)
• A satellite is a moon, planet, or machine that orbits a planet or star.
• Mars has two satellites, Phobos and Deimos.
• Saturn has the largest number of natural satellites or moons.
• It has 82 natural satellites with known orbits. The most famous satellite is titan
which is also the second-largest satellite and it has its own atmosphere also.
• Jupiter has 79 satellites, some are - Io, Europa, Ganymede.
• Moons of Uranus are named after the character of Shakespeare like Miranda.
• Pluto has a satellite, Charon.
• Charon is as big as pluto.
Dwarf Planet (10:09 AM)
• Pluto has been degraded to the status of a dwarf planet.
• Ceres and Makemake are also dwarf planets.
• Criteria to declare a body as a planet -
• It should have an independent orbit.
• It should have enough mass to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium (to achieve a
spherical shape).
• It should have a clear neighborhood.
Terms (10:19 AM)
• Kuiper belt - It is a zone of galactic debris and remnants of planets with frozen
gases, rocks, and debris material.
• It is a circumstellar disc in the outer Solar System, extending from the orbit of
Neptune at 30 astronomical units to approximately 50 AU from the Sun.
• Oort Cloud - It is a spherical layer of icy objects surrounding our Sun. Located at
approx 50000 astronomical units.
• Goldilock zone - the habitable zone is the area around a star where it is not too hot
and not too cold for liquid water to exist on the surface of surrounding planets.
Moon (10:21 AM)
• Moon is the natural satellite of the earth.
• The time taken by the moon's rotation and revolution is the same, so we will be
able to see only one face of the moon.
• It is about one-quarter the diameter of Earth.
 • Moon is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System relative to the size of its
planet, the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System overall, and is larger than any
known dwarf planet.
Asteroid belt (10:34 AM)
• Asteroids are that debris and rocks which did not become planets.
• Small, rocky, and metallic debris orbiting between Mars and Jupiter.
• The core of asteroids is made up of nickel and Iron.
• Jupiter is said to be preventing these asteroids from falling on earth.
• Asteroid - meteorids- meteor - meteroit.
• Meteoroids- when astroids come out of the belt and approach the earth they are
called meteoroids.
• Meteor - the flash of light due to the burning of the meteoroid in the earth's
atmosphere.
• Meteorite - the remnant of a meteoroid that reaches the earth's surface surviving its
passage through the atmosphere.
Comets (11:15 AM)
• Comets are frozen rocky material with hardcore surrounding gas and dust called,
coma.
• They are from the Kuiper belt and Oort cloud and they develop very elongated orbit
around the sun.
• It develops tail when it is near to the sun and it is always pointed away from the sun
due to solar winds.
Eclipse (11:38 AM)
• An eclipse occurs when one heavenly body moves in the shadow of another.
• Solar Eclipse - When the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching the earth it
casts a shadow on to earth resulting in a solar eclipse.
• During an eclipse, the region's darker shadow is called Umbra and the lighter
shadow is called Penumbra.
Types of a solar eclipse
• Total solar eclipse - When the sun is completely blocked by the moon the entire
photosphere gets blocked and the chromosphere and corona are visible.
• It is experienced in the regions of the umbra.
• Partial solar eclipse - It is experienced in the regions of Penumbra.
• Annular solar eclipse - When the moon is in the farthest position from the earth, it
will not be able to block the entire photosphere resulting in a ring of fire.
• It occurs in the regions of Antumbra.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CONTINUATION OF ECLIPSE
INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE CLASS (9:14 AM)
Doubts (9:34 AM)
LUNAR ECLIPSE (Explained with diagram) (9:39 AM)
• Earth comes between the sun and moon blocking light from the sun which was
supposed to be reflected by the moon resulting in a lunar eclipse.
• Types of a lunar eclipse-
• Total lunar eclipse - when the moon is completely in shadow i.e., located in earth
Umbra.
• Only light from the earth's atmosphere reached with a red component of visible
light resulting in blood moon.
• Partial lunar eclipse - when the moon is located between Umbra and Penumbra, the
moon appears crescent shape.
• Penumbral lunar eclipse - when the moon is located completely in Penumbra of
earth.
• The moon appears darker than the usual full moon.
Difference between solar and lunar eclipse (10:10 AM)
Solar Lunar

Sun-Moon-earth Sun-earth- moon

Smaller Umbra Larger Umra and

and Penumbra. Penumbra.

Shorter duration. Longer duration.

Happens during Happens during the

the day. night.
Happens during happens during full
new moon day. moon day.
Not safe to watch Safe to watch with
with naked eyes. naked eyes.
GEOMORPHOLOGY (10:25 AM)
• The study of physical features of the earth and the processes in which those
features are formed.
• Lesson Plan - Origin and evolution of the earth, geological time-scale, the interior of
the earth, types of rocks, earth movements, continental drift theory, seafloor
spreading theory, Plate tectonics theory, Vulcanism, Geomagnetism, Earthquakes,
Tsunami, Exigenic movements, Landforms.
Origin and evolution of earth (10:39 AM)
• Origin- theories covered in earlier classes.
• Origin and evolution - Nebular hypothesis.
• Earth was initially barren, rocky and hot in a volatile state.
 • It had a thin atmosphere made up of hydrogen and helium separating the
formation of the inner layer.
• Due to the gradual increase in density of the earth, the interior temperature
increased and started to cool down.
• This led to density separation causing heavy elements to sink towards the centre
and lighter ones moved towards the surface.
• The earth cooled further and gradually condensed into a smaller size.
• The further process of differentiation led to the formation of different layers in the
earth's interior.
• The early this atmosphere was stripped off due to solar winds during cooling of the
earth, gases and water vapour were released from the interior.
• The process through which these gases outpoured into the atmosphere is called
de-gassing.
• Volcanic eruptions released more gases.
• At this stage, the atmosphere contained, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, water
vapour and very little oxygen.
• As the earth cooled water vapour started to condense and carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the temperature further decreased.
• This led to more condensation and precipitation.
• The rainfall water collected in the depression on the earth's surface resulted in the
formation of oceans which was completed around 4 billion years ago.
• Life began to evolve around 3800 million years ago.
• Between 3000-2500 million years ago, blue-green algae emerged in ocean waters
which started to release oxygen through photosynthesis.
• By 2000 million years ago oceans were saturated with oxygen and oxygen started
flooding the atmosphere.
• A new atmosphere gradually evolved.
Geological time scale (11:43 AM)
• Eon - era- period- epoch - age.
• Eon = Hadean, the Archean - Proterozoic - Phanerozoic.
• Era = Palaeozoic (6 periods), Mesozoic (3 periods) - Cainozoic/Cenozoic (2 periods).
• Period = (Palaeozoic) - Cambrian - Ordovician - Silurian- Devonian -Carboniferous -
Permian, (Mesozoic ) - Triassic - Jurassic - Cretaceous, ( Cainozoic) Territory -
Quaternary period.
• Epoch = Palaeocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene and
Holocene.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CONTINUATION OF GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE AND
GEOMORPHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:15 AM)
A brief discussion about geological time scale (explained with geological time scale
table- refer NCERT) (9:25 AM)
• Epoch - Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene.
• An international team of researchers collected some stalagmite which was
deposited on the floor by plunging into the roof of the cave in Meghalaya.
• This helped the researchers to define the climate of that time in the history of the
Earth.
• For this reason, the 'Meghalayan Age' has been named after Meghalaya.
Interior of Erath (9:49 AM)
Sources of study (Explained with flow-chart)
Direct Indirect
sources sources

Deep
Density
ocean
studies.
drilling.

Volcanic Seismic
eruptions. studies.

Temperature
-- and pressure
studies.

-- Meteorites.
Direct sources
• Deep ocean drilling - by studying the material extracted from deep ocean drilling,
we can conclude about the earth's interior.
• However, the maximum depth of drilling was 12 km i.e., in the arctic ocean.
• Volcanic eruptions - During a volcanic eruption, the magma material erupts from
the earth's interior which can be used to study the earth's interior.
Indirect sources
• Density studies - By analysing the average density of the earth and comparing it
with density at the surface we can conclude that the crust is lighter and the core is
heavier.
• The average density of the earth is 5.5 g/cm³.
• Density near the surface is 2.7 to 3 g/cm³.
• Density at the core is 13 g/cm³.
• Seismic studies - By analysing different earthquake waves, their speed and direction
we can conclude about the material of the earth's interior and its characteristics.
• Temperature and pressure studies - near the surface temperature rises by 1-degree
celsius for every 32 meters of depth.
• However, the temperature of the core is 5200 degrees Celcius.
• This decrease in the rate of temperature rise can be explained due to the increased
pressure and density at deeper depths.
 • Meteorites - The chemistry and mineralogy of the nickel-iron core of meteorites can
be studied to get information about the earth's interior.
Chemical divisions (Explained with diagram) (10:44 AM)
• As per chemical characteristics, the earth's interior is divided into three layers -
core, mantle and crust.
• The continental crust and oceanic crust are adjacent to each other.
Crust (10:55 AM)
• It is the outermost layer of earth and is the lightest of all the layers.
• The crust is divided into continental crust and oceanic crust.
Difference between continental and oceanic crust
Continental
Oceanic crust
crust

35- 95 km 8-10 km

Density - Density-
Lighter Heavier
Lighter in Darker in
colour. colour.
It is older in Very young in
age. age.
Aluminium + Aluminium +
silica = sial silica = sial
Mantle (11:03 AM)
• It is a solid layer extending up to the depth of 2888 km.
• It is divided into the upper mantle and lower mantle.
• It accounts for 83% of the volume of earth and 68% of the mass.
Core (11:13 AM)
• It is the innermost layer that contains a higher proportion of Iron and Nickel
therefore it is also called as nife layer.
• The core is divided into liquid outer core and solid inner core.
• The density of the core is very high and is double that of the mantle.
Physical divisions (11:16 AM)
• Lithosphere - It is a solid layer made up of the crust and the upper part of the upper
mantle.
• It extends up to the depth of 100 km.
• Asthenosphere - It is a soft, plastic layer of the upper mantle which is semi-solid and
semi-liquid in nature.
• The depth is between 100-400 km.
• It is called a slow velocity zone due to the slowing down of earthquake waves in this
zone.
• It is a source of magma to the surface.
• Mesosphere - It includes the rest of the mantle.
• Barysphere - Includes both outer and inner core.
Composition of the earth (try remembering first five) (11:34 AM)
Elements %
Oxygen 46.60

Silicon 27.72

Aluminium 8.13

Iron 5

Calcium 3.63

Sodium 2.83

Potassium 2.59

Magnesium 2.09

Others 1.41
Discontinuity (Explained with diagram) (11:39 AM)
• It is the transition zone between different layers of differing physical and chemical
characteristics.
• Conrad = inside the continental crust.
• Moho/Mohoveric = Between crust and mantle.
• Repetti =between upper and lower mantle.
• Gutenberg = Lower mantle and core.
• Lehman = between inner and outer core.
ROCKS (11:48 AM)
• Any naturally occurring agglomeration of mineral particles from rocks.
Previous year question discussion (11:53 AM)
Difference between rocks and minerals (11:54 AM)
Rocks Mineral
Minerals are solid,
Rocks are aggregates of
inorganic substances
mineral elements.
occurring naturally.
Definite chemical
No definite composition.
composition.
Elements are organised to
Minerals are organised to
form compounds that are
form rocks.
known as minerals.
Four chief mineral groups
Three chief of rocks -
are silicates, carbonates,
Igneous, sedimentary and
sulphides and metallic
metamorphic.
minerals.
Abundant minerals - Iron,
Important rocks are basalt,
silicon, magnesium, nickel
granite, sandstone etc.
etc.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CONTINUATION OF ROCKS
INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:14 AM)
MAPPING (9:24 AM)
• Maps to be revised on priority basis world physical, India physical and then political
maps.
• Types of Questions - Which of these are bordering countries? Why a particular
location is famous?
• Revise maps based on current places in the news on regular basis.
• Historically there were only 4 oceans.
• Currently, there are 5 oceans - Arctic Ocean, Southern Ocean, Indian Ocean,
Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean.
• In 2000 the International Hydrographic organization suggested that we should
declare water around Antarctica as a separate ocean.
• The southern ocean is the fifth ocean.
• All the oceans are connected with no physical boundary as such.
• The deepest point on earth - Challenger deep - 10497 m
• The highest point on earth - Mount Everest - 8848.6 m
• Atlantic and Pacific oceans are connected with all other oceans.
• Pacific ocean - It has no direct connection with Europe and Africa.
• It surrounds the ring of fire.
• The deepest part of the Earth- Challenger Deep (Mariana Trench) = 10,920 meters.
• Atlantic ocean - It is the youngest ocean.
• It is S-Shaped.
• There is a ridge called Mid-Atlantic ridge in it.
• It is connected with all other oceans.
• India Ocean - It is the only ocean to be named after a country.
• It has no access to the arctic ocean.
• Arctic Ocean -This is the smallest of all the oceans.
• It is frozen.
• Arctic amplification- It is the rate at which the arctic ocean is melting.
• The reason behind this melting is global warming.
• It is melting at twice the rate of the melting of the rest of the world's ice.
• Southern ocean- It is the water surrounding Antarctica.
• It starts from 60 Degree south latitude.
• Unofficially it is also known as the Astral ocean or Antarctica ocean.
Continents (10:19 AM)
• There are 7 different continents:
• Asia (Largest)
• Africa
• North America
• South America
• Antarctica
• Europe
• Oceania (Smallest)
 • The major landmasses are called Continents.
• There is no clearly defined definition.
• Asia - It accounts for 1/3rd of the entire landmass.
• Towards the North, it is surrounded by the Arctic ocean
• The Pacific ocean is there towards the East.
• Towards the South, there is the Indian Ocean.
• Russia is considered in Europe, Asian Russia is called Siberia.
• The Ural Mountains form the boundary between Asia and Europe.
• Europe and Asia have connected with the Caucasus mountains also.
• The black sea, Mediterranean sea, and Caspian also separate Asia and Europe.
• The Mediterranean sea separated Europe from Asia as well as Africa.
• The Caspian Sea is not a sea but a lake and it is also a boundary between Asia and
Europe.
• The south-Eastern part of Asia islands like Indonesia and are all part of Asia but
Papua new guinea Island is considered the boundary of Oceania and Asia.
• This Island is very near to the equator and is very famous for its biodiversity.
• The red sea is the boundary between Asia and Africa.
• The small landmass, Senai Peninsula (part of Eqypt) connects Asia and Africa.
• The lowest point on Asian landmass - the dead sea, is the lowest point on the whole
earth's continental mass.
ROCKS (10:58 AM)
Types of rocks
Igneous rocks
• They are formed due to cooling, solidification, and crystallization of molten
material of the earth.
• Igneous rocks are of two types - Intrusive and extrusive.
• Intrusive igneous rocks - are formed from the cooling of magma below the earth's
surface.
• They are also called plutonic rocks.
• Examples, granite, gabbro, etc.
• Extrusive igneous rocks -are formed from the cooling of magma above the earth's
surface.
• They are also called volcanic rocks.
• Example, basalt, andesite, etc.
• Igneous rocks are massive in nature and have no layers are strata.
• Igneous rocks are also classified as acidic (felsic) and basic (mafic) depending on
the proportion of silica.
• The continental rocks are mainly acidic in nature and oceanic rocks are basic in
nature.
Sedimentary rocks (11:25 AM)
• These rocks are formed by the solidification of sediments or original igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.
• Stages in the formation of sedimentary rocks -
• Weathering - break down of original rocks.
• Transportation
• Deposition
• Lithification - conversion of loose sediments into hard rocks.
 • Compaction - where the sediments are squeezed by the weight of over-laying
layers.
• Cementation - binding together of compacted sediments by natural material.
• Sedimentary rocks are characterized by the presence of different layers or strata
and they also contain fossil pieces of evidence in large numbers.
• Examples, sandstone, limestone, coal, chalk, shale, etc.
Metamorphic rocks (11:44 AM)
• It involves a change in the form of rocks through chemical or physical processes.
• Change in pressure conditions results in dynamic metamorphism.
• Change in temperature leads to thermal metamorphism.
• Metamorphism involves the following processes -
• Foliation - a mineral arrangement in a series of bands along a plane.
• Leniation - when minerals are arranged in a linear manner.
• Banding - alternating arrangement into light and dark shades.
• For example, granite undergoes metamorphism to form Gneiss.
• Limestone forms marble.
• Sandstone forms quatzite.
• Clay forms slate.
• Shale forms schist.
• Coal form graphite.
•
TOPIC FROM NEXT CLASS - ROCK CYCLE

Geography Class 11
INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:07 AM)
ROCK CYCLE (Explained with diagram) (9:16 AM)
• The rock cycle is the process by which rocks of one kind change into rocks of
another kind.
• There are three main kinds of rocks- igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and
sedimentary rock.
• It can melt into magma, erode into the sediment, or be pressed tightly together to
become metamorphic.
• Rocks do not remain in their original form for a long period as they undergo a
transformation.
• This cycle is an uninterrupted process through which old rocks are converted into
new ones.
• Igneous rocks are primary rocks.
• These rocks can be changed into metamorphic rocks.
• Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks form from these primary rocks.
• The fragments evolved out of metamorphic rocks and igneous again form into
sedimentary rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks themselves can develop into fragments.
• The crustal rocks -igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary-once formed may be
carried down into the interior of the earth through subduction.
• In this process, parts or entire crustal plates subduct under another plate and the
same melt at high temperature in the interior.
 • This results in the formation of molten magma, the unique source for igneous
rocks.
Earth's movements (9:33 AM)
• The surface relief or topography results from two types of forces endogenetic and
exogenetic.
• Both these forces cause physical stress and chemical actions on earth's material
bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth called
geomorphic processes.
Geomorphic processes
Exogenetic Endogenetic
These are the
processes These are
originating originated
from above from below
the earth's the surface
surface and and caused
Definition
they give rise land
to erosion, upliftment,
weathering, subsidence,
smoothing of folding.
various relief fracturing etc.
features.
Radioactivity
Sources of Sunlight, and
and primordial
energy gravity.
heat.
Winds,
rainfall, rivers, Magma, plate
Agents of
glaciers, movements
changes
underground etc.
water etc.
The
exogenetic Endogenetic
processes processes
result in the result in the
Topographical formation of formation of
features minor major
formation topographical topographical
features such features on the
as valleys, earth's
caves, surface.
waterfalls etc.
Endogenetic Movements (10:11 AM)
• All the interior/ endogenic movements can be classified into Diastrophic
movements and sudden movements.
• Sudden movements - Type of endogenic movements which occurs for a shorter
duration and are unpredictable in nature.
• For Example, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions.
 • Diastrophic movements - These are the movements that move, elevate or build up
portions of the earth's crust.
• These movements operate very slowly and lead to the formation of primary
landforms.
• The types of Diastrophic movements are tectonic, isostatic and eustatic.
• Tectonic movements - the word tecton in greek means to build.
• Thes e are continent and mountain building movements affecting the earth's
surface.
• It includes Eperiogenic and orogenic movements.
• Eperiogenic movements - These are the vertical movements caused by radial forces.
• They are characterised by large scale upliftment or emergence and subsidence or
submergence.
• They are very slow and widespread.
• These movements lead to the continental building.
• For example, slow subsidence of the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico.
• Orogenic movements - It involves intense folding, thrusting and faulting of narrow
belts.
• These are mountain building movements caused by tangential forces.
• Tangential forces are of two types compressional and tensional.
• Compressional forces - These are the forces causing the earth's rocks to push or
squeeze against each other.
• It causes the formation of folding.
• Folds are structures in which the layers are bent or distorted without the loss of
continuity.
• Tensional force - These are the forces that pull the rocks apart and causes the
formation of faults.
• Faults are the fractures by which the primary surfaces are broken and displaced
with the loss of continuity.
Types of folds (11:20 AM)
• The sides of folds are called Limbs.
• The up-folds are called anticlines and are formed when the strata are bent
upwards.
• The downfolds are called synclines where the strata are bent downwards.
• If both the limbs of a fold are inclined at the same angle it is called a symmetrical
fold.
• If one of the limb incline more than the other it is called an asymmetrical fold.
• Where the strata in one limb are folded beyond the vertical axis is called an overfold
or overturned fold.
• A recumbent fold is a fold literally lying down from the continuation of pressure in
one of the limbs.
• A nappe is formed when the pressure exerted upon the recumbent fold is
sufficiently great to cause it to be torn from its root and thrust forward.
• Nappes are well developed Himalayas and the Alps.
Types of faults - an overview (11:53 AM)
• Here the forces are tensional in nature.
• Faults are fractures in Earth’s crust where rocks on either side of the crack have slid
past each other.
 • Sometimes the cracks are tiny, as thin as a hair, with barely noticeable movement
between the rock layers.
• But faults can also be hundreds of miles long, such as the San Andreas Fault in
California and the Anatolian Fault in Turkey, both of which are visible from space.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS- CONTINUATION OF TYPES OF FAULTS AND MOVEMENTS

INTRODUCTION (9:16 AM)

Types of faults (9:20 AM)
• Normal fault - A down-dropped block in a fault is called a graben.
• The upthrust block is a horst.
• When one of the blocks moves downwards in comparison to the other one it is
called a normal fault or dip-slip fault.
• Reverse fault - When one block moves up in relation to the other one is called a
reverse fault. They are also called thrust faults.
• Reverse faults arise from the compressive force.
• Strike-slip fault - This fault is also called transform fault.
• When both the blocks move across each other involving no vertical movement is
called a strike-slip fault.
• Examples, are Vindhyas and Satpura with Narmada-Tapi valley.
• Black forest with rhine valley and Ural mountains, Californian fault - San Andreas.
Difference between Fold and Block mountains (9:30 AM)
Block
Fold mountains
mountains
Continuity No continuity.
Both terminal
Compressional and
compressional.
Folding. Faulting.
Greater in
Wider.
length.
Isostasy (9:38 AM)
• Isostasy is the state of equilibrium or balance in the earth's crust.
• Isostatic movements involve vertical movements under the action of floatation
displacement between the rock layers of defined density and mobility to achieve
balanced crustal columns of uniform mass above a level of compensation in which
the topographic elevation is inversely related to underlying rock density.
• Mountains have deep roots.
• Along Scandinavian mountains melting of ice sheets led to the gradual rising of
land which is evident in a series of raised beaches.
Eustatic movements (9:59 AM)
• They involve the worldwide movement of sea level resulting from changes in the
total volume of liquid seawater or the capacity of ocean basins.
• For example, convection in the mantle would arch up an oceanic ridge and displace
the water from ocean basins as the capacity of ocean basins decreases.
Continental drift theory (Explained with diagrams) (10:07 AM)
• Introduction - The continental drift theory was proposed by Alfred Wegner a german
meteorologist in 1912.
• He proposed the theory to explain major variations in the climatic conditions on
the surface of the earth.
• Assumptions - The earth is made up of three layers outer SIAL, intermediate SIMA,
and inner NIFE.
• SIAL is a continental mass, SIMA is the oceanic crust.
• SIAL masses are floating on SIMA without any resistance.
• Theory - Wegener proposed that 250 million years ago there was only one
supercontinent called Pangea and one super ocean called Panthalassa.
• Pangea consisted of all the present continents.
• This supercontinent was separated into the northern Angara land and southern
Gondwana land by a rift extending east to west around 225 million years ago.
• The northern Angara land consisted of North America, Greenland, and Eurasia
without Arabia and India.
• The southern Gondwana land consisted of south America, Africa with Arabia,
Madagascar, India, Antarctica, and Australia.
• The Angara land and Gondwana land were separated by Tethys sea.
• Another rift running from north to south separated North America and Greenland
from Eurasia, South America from Africa and both started moving towards the west.
• Gradually, Africa mode towards the north, India started moving towards Eurasia,
Antarctica mode south and Australia towards east.
• Around 20 million years ago, Arabia got separated from Africa and merged with
Asia.
• Forces responsible - North-south movement was caused by gravitational differential
force and force of buoyancy to adjust the center of gravity and the center of
buoyancy.
• This combined force was called pole-fleeing force.
• The last west movement was caused by tidal forces of the sun and moon.
• Evidence suggested -
• Jig-saw fit of continents - The similarities in coastline on opposite sides of oceans.
• For example, the easter coast of South America and the western coast of Africa.
• Structural pieces of evidence - Mountains belts for Brazil terminate on the South
American east coast and the same type of mountain re-appear along with the
western coast of Africa.
• Stratigraphic evidence - The eastern coast of Brazil has the same type of rock
formation observed along with northwestern Africa.
• Fossil evidence - Mesosaurus is an aquatic reptile whose fossils are found only in
southeastern South America and southern Africa.
• Had it been able to win across the ocean, it should have been widely distributed.
• The fossils of Glossoterris, a fern grown only in subpolar climates are now found in
warm climatic regions separated by wide oceans.
 •Glacial deposits - the layers of tillites are found in warm tropical regions like South
America, South Africa, Australia, India, etc.
• Placer deposits - Rich deposits of gold near Ghana in Africa without any source of
Gold nearby but they are found in Brazil plateau.
• Criticism
• The geophysical mechanism suggested for the movement was considered
inadequate.
• The rocks of continental crust were rigid and hard and it would not permit a free-
drifting of continents over the oceanic floor.
• The theory did not describe the conditions of pre-carboniferous times.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:15 AM)

Sea-floor spreading theory (9:22 AM)
• The mapping of the oceanic floor revealed the following information-
• The presence of mid-oceanic ridges along the seafloor.
• These ridges are active i.e., continuous volcanic eruptions occur along the center of
ridges.
• The rocks are of similar composition, age, and magnetic property on either side of
the ridge.
• The age of rocks increases away from the ridge.
• The rocks of the oceanic basin are much younger than the rocks of continents.
• Oceanic crust is thinner than the continental crust.
• Based on the above observations Harry Hess in 1961 proposed the theory of sea-
floor spreading.
• According to it, the constant magma eruption along the oceanic ridges causes the
rupture of oceanic crust, and lava erupts out continuously.
• The new lava wedges on the oceanic crust and pushes the oceanic crust of either
side and therefore ocean floor spreads.
• The spreading crust sinks down along the oceanic trenches and gets consumed.
Plate tectonics theory (10:10 AM)
• Introduction -
• Plates- the term plate was coined by JT Wilson in 1965.
• Plates are broad rigid segments of the lithosphere which include the rigid upper
part of the upper mantle and crust.
• The plates move on the underlying aesthenosphere.
• Plate tectonics - the theory of plate tectonics was proposed by McKenzie and Parker
and Morgan in 1967.
 • It is the study of deformation within plates and of the interaction of plates around
their margins.
• Plates are highly rigid and are unable to deform except in response to very strong
and prolonged forces.
• There are seven major plates on the earth's surface -
• North American
• South American
• Eurasian
• Africa
• Indo-Australian
• Antarctican
• Pacific
• Many minor plates like - cocos-Nazca, Arabian, phillipines etc.
• The plate tectonic theory is different from continental drift theory with respect to-
• The presence of sial and sima layers next to each other is a part of a single plate
that moves as a single unit.
• Plates while under motion offer high resistance and undergo deformation.
• Plate movements - (Explained with diagram)
• Plates are constantly in motion but with different speeds and directions.
• This causes three types of plate boundaries, divergent, convergent, and parallel.
• Divergent or constructive plate boundary -
• Ocean-ocean divergence - These are the zones of tension where the rising magma
causes rifting of the lithosphere and separated them into two different oceanic
plate margins and moves them apart in two opposite directions.
• Hot magma comes up through the cracks and solidifies leading to the formation of
a new oceanic crust.
• Continent-continent divergence - The formation of divergent plate boundaries along
continents involves the following three stages.
• Continental righting or intracontinental rifting - It involves the fragmentation of
continents by an upward movement of convection currents in the form of rising
plum of molten magma from below.
• The rising magma causes the creation of numerous cracks and rift valleys and
magma starts to come out of this rift valley.
• For example, east African rift valley.
• Interplate thinning - It involves partial melting of the lithosphere and gradual
thinning of the continental plate.
• The rift valley starts to widen and gradually gets filled with ocean water resulting in
the formation of a shallow sea. For example, red sea.
• Formation of mid-oceanic ridges - The continuous spreading of plates and creation
of new plate material along the rift valley pushed the two continental masses
sufficiently apart.
• At this stage, there will be a new oceanic basin along both sides of the ridge. For
example, mid-Atlantic ridge.
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS- TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES AND PLATE TECTONICS
Three major types of boundaries: (9:15 AM)
• Divergent / Constructive Plate Boundary.
• Convergent / Destructive Plate Boundary.
• Parallel/conservative Plate.
• Near Ocean-ocean divergent boundary, seafloor spreading happens.
• Rising magma creates a new oceanic crust.
• Rising magma creates the formation of rifts, e.g. East African Rift.
• Gradually, it leads to the formation of oceanic crust.
• A wide oceanic ridge is created, e.g. Mid Atlantic Ridge.
Types of earthquakes: (9:21 AM)
• Shallow earthquake: 0-70 km
• Intermediate earthquake: 70-350 km
• Deep earthquake: 350-700 km
Island arc: (9:41 AM)
• For example Japan.
• Formed by the collision of the Pacific Plate and the Eurasian plate. Here Pacific
plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian plate.
• Aleutian Island is also in an arc shape.
• Archipelago: Large group of islands, like Indonesia, Philippines, etc.
• Due to the shifting of trenches or intense volcanic activity, such formation of a large
group of islands is known as an archipelago.
Ocean-Ocean Convergence: (9:57 AM)
• When two oceanic plate margins collide, an oceanic plate of higher density
descends down into the asthenosphere.
• This process is called subduction.
• And the zone is called a subduction zone.
• This leads to the formation of trenches which are the deepest regions on the
surface of the earth.
• For example, the collision of the Pacific plate with its surrounding plate margins
has resulted in the formation of Mariana Trench, Japan Trench, Aleutian Trench,
etc.
• The subducting plate starts to melt as it reaches the deeper portions and some of
its melted material finds its way upward in the form of volcanic activity.
• This melted material piles up continuously on the adjacent oceanic floor forming
volcanic islands.
• The continuous volcanic activity gradually increases the size and elevation of
volcanic islands.
• The islands which are arranged parallel to the trenches in an arc-shaped are called
island arcs. For example Japan, Aleutian island, Caribbean islands, etc.
• An archipelago is a group of islands scattered in the ocean.
• It is formed around ocean-ocean convergent plate boundaries, with intense
volcanic activity and shifting plate margins.
 • For example Indonesia, the Philippines, etc.
• Subduction zones are the sights of intense compression, deformation, and
metamorphism.
• Along these zones, all three types of earthquakes, shallow, intermediate, and deep-
seated can be found.
• The majority of such earthquakes appear to be confined to a narrow dipping zone,
along the subducting slab called as Benioff Zone.
• That is the Ocean-ocean convergence plate boundary.
Ocean-Continent Convergence Plate Boundary: (10:29 AM)
• It is when an oceanic plate margin collides with a continental plate margin.
• Continental crust being more buoyant forces the higher density oceanic crust into
the mantle.
• For example, Nazca plate subducting below South American plate.
• During subduction, the thick sequence of rocks along the continental margins is
compressed and deformed to form a chain of fold mountains.
• For example the Andes, Rocky Mountains.
• As the oceanic plate subducts in creates trenches.
• Earthquakes are generated at Benioff Zones.
• As the oceanic plate plunges deeper it gets melted and starts to rise.
• This rising magma will be emplaced in the overlying continental crust, which may
eventually migrate to the surface leading to the formation of a line of volcanos on
the fold mountains.
• For example: Ojos del slado Cotopaxi, Chimobrazo.
• Ocean-continent collision results in all three types of earthquakes: shallow,
intermediate, and deep.
Continent-Continent Convergence: (11:13 AM)
• It is when two plates with continental margins collide with each other.
• For example Collision of Indian and Eurasian plates.
• Prior to the continental collision, the landmasses are separated by oceanic crust.
• As the two plates converge, the intermining sea encloses and seafloor subducts
beneath one of the plates.
• The continued convergence results in complete subduction of oceanic crust, and
the two continental mass gets stitched together at the suture zone.
• When the continental margins continue to collide, the low density of the
continental material doesn’t permit its subduction.
• The oceanic material completely breaks from the continental block and gets
completely assimilated into the mantle.
• At this point in time, volcanic activity stops.
• The continued convergence forces the continental crust partially under another
one creating an unusually thick layer of intense folding.
• The folding of sediments deposited in the basin between two continental crusts
results in the formation of very high fold mountains.
• For example Himalayas.
• The types of earthquakes in this zone are shallow and intermediate.
Transform plate boundary: (11:34 AM)
• At a conservative plate margin, the plates slide past each other without any
construction or destruction of plate material.
• This boundary is also called a parallel or transform plate boundary.
 • For example San Andreas fault, California.
• Such kinds of transform faults are also found along the ocean-ocean divergent
boundary where they offset the oceanic ridges throughout their length.
• The Pacific Ocean is surrounded by trenches on all the sides, which are the zones of
intense volcanic activities, and earthquakes.
• Therefore, it is called as Pacific Ring of Fire.
Divergent boundaries:
• O-O divergence: Mid-oceanic ridges are found along O-O divergent boundaries.
• Earthquakes: Shallow, intermediate, deep-seated earthquakes.
• Volcanic eruption: Yes.
• Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridges.
• Continent-Continent divergence:
• Rift valley, shallow sea, and mid-oceanic ridges.
• Earthquakes: Shallow.
• Volcanic eruption: Yes.
• Examples: East African Rift Valley, Red Sea.
Convergent boundaries:
• Ocean-Ocean convergent boundary: Subduction zones, trenches, Benioff zones,
island arcs, archipelago.
• Earthquake: Shallow, intermediate, deep-seated earthquakes.
• Volcanic eruption: Yes.
• Examples: Japan, Aleutian Island, Indonesia.
• O-C convergence:
• Subduction zones, Benioff zones, fold mountains, lines of volcanoes.
• Volcanoes: Yes.
• Example: the Andes, Rocky Mountains.
• Continent-Continent convergence:
• Partial subduction, suture zone, high fold mountains.
• Earthquakes: Shallow and intermediate.
• Volcanic eruption: No.
• Example: Himalayas
Parallel Boundary:
• Transform faults,
• Earthquakes: Shallow
• Volcanic activity: No.
• Example: San Andreas Fault, California.
The topic for the next class: Plate movement forces, volcanism
Revision (9:10 AM):
Divergent Plate movement:
• When two plates are moving apart, the rising of magma happens.
• This creates a ridge and pushes both plates.
• This is also known as constructive plate margin.
• It will have shallow earthquakes.
• Rifting is also observed.
• Rising magma creates ocean plates.
Convergent plate movement: (9:18 AM)
• Both plates are moving each other.
• Subduction can occur due to convergence.
• The plate with higher density undergoes subduction, e.g. Oceanic plate subducts
beneath the continental plate.
• Subduction also results in island arcs.
• An archipelago is formed in the case of the formation of a large group of island arcs.
• Benioff Zone: A subduction zone along with which, earthquakes are common.
• Geosyncline: Tythes Sea was an example of the geosyncline.
Causes of Plate Motion: (9:26 AM)
• Convection Currents:
• The theory of convection currents was proposed by Arthur Holmes.
• The convection currents in the Earth’s interior are generated due to the intense
heat released in the Earth’s core by radioactivity.
• These currents are of two types:
• Involving the whole of the mantle,
• The other involves only the asthenosphere.
• As the currents ascend from below they diverge and spread laterally.
• The rising currents cause the lithosphere to split as the plates move laterally, the
currents carry the slab of the lithosphere with them.
• This is the site of Oceanic Ridges.
• When the currents encounter a similar opposite branch they descend into the
deeper parts of the mantle and drag the lithosphere down into the mantle along
trenches.
Mantle Plume: (10:07 AM)
• It involves Jet-like plumes of low-density material from the core-mantle boundary.
• As the plume reaches the lithosphere, it spreads out laterally, doming the surface
zones of the Earth and moving them, along the direction of mantle plumes.
• Mantle plumes are majorly responsible for intra-plate movements.
• Mantle plumes are also the cause of the formation of volcanic hotspots.
• For example Reunion islands, Hawaii Islands
Ridge Push: (10:19 AM)
• Magma rising along the oceanic ridges form wedges of the new lithosphere on
either side of the trailing edge of the plate.
• This causes plates to be pushed apart.
• Gravitational sliding:
• The spreading centers stand high on the ocean floor, this results in gravitational
sliding of lithospheric slab away from the oceanic ridge.
• Slab Pull:
• It is considered to be along the subduction zones where the subducting plate pulls
the rest of the slab along.
Criticism of Plate Tectonic Theory: (10:22 AM)
• Both Africa and Antarctica plates are surrounded by ridges and have no subduction
zones to accommodate the new lithosphere being generated.
• The plate tectonics in the past i.e. the formation of earlier mountains, movement of
different plates, and how they are different from present ones.
Mapping Session: 10:51 AM
• Sources:
• Mapping of locations asked in previous year's papers.
• Regular practice of maps, news-based locations, from Atlas, etc.
• Continent: Europe
• The lowest point is the Dead Sea.
• Ural and Caucasus mountains: Separate Asia and Europe
• Caspian, Black, Mediterranian Sea: Separate Asia and Europe.
• New Guinea Island: As the boundary between Oceania and Asia.
• Europe is also a part of the landmass of Eurasia.
• Peninsula: surrounded by water on three sides.
• Europe is called the peninsula of peninsulas.
• In the South, the Mediterranian sea separates Europe and Asia.
• Strait of Gibraltar:
• Smallest country: Vatican City.
• Largest country: Russia.
• The highest peak of Europe: In the Caucasus Mountains.
• Because of higher latitudes, the Alps is covered in ice.
• The highest point of Europe is Mount Elbrus.
• The lowest point lies in the Caspian Sea.
Africa: (11:04 AM)
• Senai Penninsula: Belongs to Egypt.
• Suez canal: Between Senai Peninsula and rest of Egypt.
• Nile river: Longest river on the Earth.
• Africa also has the largest desert on the Earth.
• Mount Kilimanjaro: The highest point in Africa.
• Lake Victoria: largest lake of Africa.
• Djibouti: Lake Assal is the lowest point of Africa.
North America: (11:19 AM)
• Greenland is also a part of North America.
• Greenland belongs to Denmark.
• South America includes Panama, Southern, and Latin American countries.
 • Spanish, French, British had colonies, they had to pass from the Carrabian, hence,
there were many pirates in this region.
• Mountains:
• Rocky mountains, Appalachian towards the east
• The highest Peak of North America is in Alaska: Denali Peak.
• Death Valley is the lowest point in North America. (near to California).
South America: (11:24 AM)
• The major country is Brazil.
• A major part of Brazil is the Amazon forest.
• Amazon is the largest river (having the largest volume of water in the world).
• Amazon River is the second-longest river in the world.
• Andes Mountains:
• Aconcagua is the highest peak of Andes.
• Angel Falls is located on the Orinoco River.
• The lowest part of South America is Valdes Peninsula.
• Drake passage: Separates North and South America.
Oceania: (11:35 AM)
• Divided into three groups:
• Micronesia:
• Small islands, Mariana Islands, Marshall Islands (USA),
• Melanesia:
• Melanesia was named so due to darker complexion of people, e.g. Papua New
Guinea, Fiji.
•
• Polynesia is an overall triangular shape, the western end is New Zealand.
• Tonga island is also in Polynesia, also Hawaii island.
• Australia:
• Derived from the word ‘australis’, means Southern.
Antarctica: (11:41 AM)
• Antarctica was coined in the 2nd Century (opposite of Arctic).
• It is covered with very strong winds, hence very rough seas.
• Emperor penguins are found here.
• During winters the size of Antarctica reduces during summer.
• Antarctic Treaty system: Agreed in 1961 to keep Antarctica as a scientific preserve.
• It bans all military activities.
• Any country can have a base here.
• India has bases: Bharti, Dakshin Gangotri, etc.
• Zelandia: A new continent, which is largely submerged (it has not been accepted
yet), it is considered as a continental crust only.
• Southern Alps: Lies in Southern Australia.
• The highest Peak of Oceania lies in Papua New Guinea, Mt Wilhelm.
Topic for the next class: Volcanism, and earthquakes
Volcanism: (9:13 AM)
• It includes a vast majority of activities related to the formation of magma, eruption,
etc.
• Volcanism includes all three phases:
• Generation,
• Intrusion,
• Extrusion of magma.
• Volcanism includes all the phenomena associated with the movement of molten
material from the interior of the earth to the surface.
• It involves three main processes:
Generation of magma: (9:27 AM)
• Due to a decrease in pressure, increase in temperature or increase in moisture
content.
• The intrusion of Magma: Into Lithospheric layers, and
• Extrusion of molten material onto the surface.
Magma: (9:35 AM)
• Magma is hot, mobile, volatile molten silicate material.
• It is made up of a combination of solid, liquid, and gases.
Lava:
• When magma reaches the surface it erupts as lava.
• Lava is more volatile than magma and cools either on the surface or underwater.
• Different types of Magma: (9:40 AM)
Granitic Magma:
• It is generated on ocean-continent convergent boundaries.
• It results in the formation of the continental crust.
• Silica content is higher in granitic magma (60-70%)
• Lower density, less fluid.
• Silicon and aluminum are present.
Basaltic Magma:
• Ocean-Ocean and Continent-continent divergence.
• It results in the formation of oceanic crust.
• Silica content is less than 52%.
• Basaltic magma is a higher density.
• Magnesium and iron content is high.
Magma generation and plate tectonics: (9:52 AM)
• Divergent plate boundaries:
• In both Ocean-Ocean or Continent-Continent. Here magma is generated due to
convectional currents and mantle plumes.
• In both O-O and C-C divergence results in basaltic magma only.
• Fissure eruption takes place in such divergence.
• They are slow and continuous eruptions.
 • Along with C-C divergence, some accumulation happens, resulting in the formation
of volcanic cones.
• Convergent plate boundaries:
• Both in the case of Ocean-ocean and Continent-Continent.
Andesitic Magma: (10:05 AM)
• The partial melting of subducting oceanic plates with marine sediments derived
from continents results in the generation of andesitic magma.
• Here, explosive and violent eruptions are present in convergent plate boundaries.
Types of eruptions: (10:09 AM)
• Explosive: Formation of volcanic cones.
• Volcanic Hotspots:
• Mantle plumes, and contains basaltic magma.
• E.g. Reunion islands, Hawaii Islands, formation of Deccan Traps.
• Type of eruption: Fissure eruption, non-explosive type.
• Ridge Formation:
• Along the oceanic floor, through mid-oceanic regions.
• Carlsberg Ridge, East Pacific Rise.
• Volcanic arc:
• Along Ocean ocean plate boundaries and are associated with island arc.
• For example,
• Volcanic chains:
• Ocean Continent convergence: Andes and Rocky mountains.
• Along the continental margins, in the regions of ocean-continent convergence.
• Volcanic Clusters:
• Along continent-continent divergence, e.g. East African Rift Valley.
• Hotspots:
• For example Reunion and Hawaii islands.
Classification of volcanoes: 10:26 AM
• Active: erupted once in human history, usually it will have a connection with the
magma chamber.
• Dormant: It is one that has an active connection with the magma chamber, but has
never erupted in human history.
• Extinct volcano: It is a dead volcano, which has a supply cut off from the magma
chamber.
• One of the most violent volcanic eruptions happened in Krakatoa, Indonesia in
1883.
• St. Helens Volcano was showing signs of eruptions, however, it was miscalculated
in 1980.
Volcanic Landforms: (11:00 AM)
• Intrusive and extrusive landforms are based on their formation below and above
the surface of the earth.
Volcanic Cones: 11:16 AM
Shield volcano:
• Formed by very fluid basaltic magma.
• Largest of all volcanoes on the Earth.
• Not very steep, found along with the hotspots.
• For example: Mauna Loa.
Ash-Cinder volcano:
 • The accumulation of loose particles around volcanic vents such as ash, debris, etc.
• Sometimes, the generation of lava causes the solidification of ash layers.
• Example: Taal volcano, Philippines.
Composite or strato-volcanic:
• It is due to the accumulation of viscous lava.
• Near to the volcanic vent.
• The lava is not very mobile and gets accumulated in different layers resulting in
increasing the steepness of the slope.
• Composite volcanoes are one of the steepest volcanic cones.
• Example: Mount Fujiyama
Crater: 11:29 AM
• It is a depression at the mouth of the volcanic cone.
• It is funnel-shaped.
• It may result in the formation of a crater lake.
Caldera:
• It is a greatly enlarged depression formed due to a violent volcanic eruption and
the subsidence of craters.
• It may result in the formation of Caldera lake.
Flood Basalt Province: (11:31 AM)
• It is formed by highly fluid basaltic magma, flowing for long-distance, covering
thousands of kilometers.
• When the basalt floods an area, it results in the formation of Flood Basalt Province.
• Maharashtra, Northern Karnataka, Gujarat have basaltic layers, and hence form the
part of Deccan traps.
Hot Springs, Geysers, Fumaroles: (11:36 AM)
Hot spring:
• Continuous supply of water.
• When water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be heated by a magma
chamber or a geothermal belt, it rises to the surface and comes out as spring
without explosion.
• It contains dissolved minerals with medicinal value.
• For example: Hot springs of Iceland, Manikaran, Kakapani, Rajgir, Manali, etc.
Geyser: (11:47 AM)
• The fountains of hot water and superheated steam ejected intermittently at regular
intervals with explosions.
• When heated water comes with pressure, it is called a geyser. (water+steam).
• For example Geysers of Iceland, New Zealand, and the USA (Old Faithfull).
Fumaroles:
• Fumaroles are continuous jet-like emissions of steam and other gases.
• For example Fumaroles of Ethiopia and New Zealand.
Mud Volcano: (11:50 AM)
• It is also known as a mud dome.
• Mud volcano is created by the eruption of mud and water, etc.
Intrusive features: 11:55 AM
• Cooling of magma below the surface.
• In intrusive features, we have two types: Major and Minor.
Batholith:
 • It is a long irregular dome-shaped feature formed by the cooling of magma in
deeper parts of the crust.
• Dome-shaped, huge in structure. It is disconnected from the magma chamber.
Laccolith:
• It is a mushroom-shaped feature formed due to the intrusion of magma along
bedding planes.
• Laccolith maintains contact with the magma chamber.
• Dome-shaped, but still active, has a connection with the magma chamber.
Lopolith:
• When the magma solidifies in saucer shape along a shallow basin.
• Saucer type of structure.
• It is a disc-like structure, cooled and solidified.
• Sill:
• They are formed due to the cooling of magma along with horizontal layers of
bedding planes.
• They are horizontal in structure.
• Dyke:
• These are vertical wall-like formations due to the cooling of magma.
• They are vertical structures formed due to the cooling down of magma.
Topic for the next class: Geomagnetism, earthquakes, and tsunamis

Geomagnetism: (9:17 AM)

• Geomagnetism: Earth is behaving like a huge bar magnet.
• There are magnetic lines associated with Earth’s magnetic field.
• Earth has magnetic North and South poles.
• It depends on the vicinity to the geographical North/South.
• Magnetic N/S are not aligned with geographical N/S (which depends on the axis of
rotation).
• The magnetic field associated with Earth is called Geomagnetism.
• Earth has magnetic North and magnetic South Poles since the earth behave like a
huge bar magnet.
• The Magnetic Poles are different from Geographical Poles.
Reasons for geomagnetism:
• Due to the movement of charged particles in the outer core.
• There is a magnetic field generation.
Causes of geomagnetism: (9:35 AM)
• It is considered that the motion of iron-charged particles in the liquid outer core of
the Earth generates a magnetic field due to electromagnetism.
• The causes of motion of these charges are:
• Rotation of the Earth.
• Convection currents of molten material in the other core due to the release of heat.
Paleomagnetism: (9:42 AM)
• Magnetism is associated with the rocks.
• It is also called fossil magnetism.
• Rocks that have ferromagnetic materials, like Manganese, Iron, etc. have magnetic
properties.
• When magma is in a molten state, ferromagnetic materials are freely suspended in
all directions.
• Once this magma starts to freeze, these minerals also start to freeze.
• Also, these minerals get aligned in the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field.
• Reasons:
• The historical study of Earth’s magnetism through rocks is called paleomagnetism.
• When igneous magma crystallizes, the crystals of ferromagnetic minerals such as
iron, manganese, titanium, etc. acquire stable magnetism.
• Which becomes frozen as the magma cools down.
• This acquired magnetism is called fossil magnetism.
• Such rocks will have ferromagnetic minerals aligned in the same direction as that of
the geomagnetic field at the time of its consolidation.
Polar Wandering:
• When paleomagnetic evidence for a given region was checked over a long period of
time a gradual change in the direction was observed.
• This shows that the position of magnetic poles has moved steadily over time.
• This movement is called Polar Wandering.
• During the study of the oceanic surface, some rocks pointed towards the North and
some toward the South.
• It is inferred that the rocks did not change their polarity but it’s the earth’s
magnetic poles that reversed their polarity.
• Such reversal of magnetic field can be brought about by reversal of convection
currents in the outer core.
• Magnetic field reversal happens every 200 to 300 thousand years.
Auroras: (10:19 AM)
• The magnetosphere of Earth's atmosphere blocks the solar winds and the charged
particles.
• But some of these get trapped near Polar regions and interact with the atmospheric
gases producing spectacular lights called Aurora.
• Aurora Australis in the South and Aurora Borealis in the North pole.
Earthquakes: (10:24 AM)
• Vibrations or oscillations of the Earth are caused by a transient disturbance of the
elastic or gravitational equilibrium of the rocks at or beneath the surface of the
Earth.
• The study of earthquakes is called seismology.
• Causes of earthquakes:
Natural causes:
• Plate movements.
• Volcanic eruptions.
• Meteorite impact.
• Landslides,
• Subsidence, Etc.
Anthropological causes:
 • Mining activity: Disturbance in the stability of rocks.
• Blasting in mining.
• Nuclear explosions.
• Reservoir Induced Seismicity: A dam is a huge structure, that also collects water,
hence rocks may get a disturbance in equilibrium.
Earthquakes waves: (10:59 AM)
• Focus:
• It is a point below the surface where the energy is released.
• Focus is also called a hypocenter.
• Epicenter:
• It is a point on the surface nearest to the focus.
• An earthquake generates two types of waves:
• Body waves:
• They are generated from the focus and move through the interior of the Earth.
• There are two types of body waves:
• P waves:
• Or Primary waves.
• P waves are the first to be detected during an earthquake.
• They are also called longitudinal or compressional waves.
• They oscillate back and forth in the direction of propagation.
• The speed depends on the density and compressibility of the material.
• P waves can travel through solid, liquid, and gases.
• S waves:
• Or Secondary waves or transverse waves.
• The oscillation occurs perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
• Speed depends on the density and rigidity of the material and therefore cannot
pass through liquid and gases.
Surface Waves: (11:32 AM)
• They are generated from the epicenter.
• Due to the interaction of body waves with the surface.
• They are confined to the surface of the earth.
• They are much slower than body waves but cause more damage.
Shadow Zone: (11:34 AM)
• It is a zone in the interior of the earth where earthquake waves are not reported.
• P waves are not detected between 105 to 145 degrees from the focus, resulting in a
P wave shadow zone.
• S waves are not detected beyond 105 degrees, resulting in the S wave shadow
zone.
• Regions of earthquakes:
• Circumpacific Belt: Pacific Ring of Fire.
• Mediterranean and Tans-Asiatic Belt.
• Mid-oceanic Ridges.
• East African Rift Valley.
Measuring the earthquake: (11:42 AM)
• Earthquake waves can be recorded by the instrument Seismograph, and the record
produced is a Seismogram.
• Intensity:
• Intensity measures the severity of the earthquake, particularly the damage caused.
 • It is subjective, depends from place to place.
• It decreases from the epicenter.
• Mercalli scale is used to measure: 1-12 scale.
• Magnitude:
• Magnitude measures the energy released during earthquakes.
• Magnitude is an objective scale.
• The magnitude of an earthquake is the same.
• Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes: 1 to 10 (Log scale).
• Examples:
• Bhuj Earthquake: 7.7 Richter magnitude.
• Kashmir Earthquake 2005: 7.6 Richter magnitude.
• 2011: Sikkim-Nepal 2008: 6.9 Magnitude.
• 1993: Latur Earthquake (due to rift fault, killed nearly 10,000 people), 6.2
Magnitude.
• 1991: Earthquake in Uttarkashi (6.1 magnitudes).
• 2015: Nepal, 7.8 magnitudes.
• 2004: Indonesia: 91. Magnitude.
The topic for the next class: Tsunami, Early Warning, etc.

Tsunami: 9:16 AM
• Tsunami waves are also called harbor waves.
• As they are mostly caused by earthquakes; hence they are also called seismic sea
waves.
Generation of Tsunami waves:
• Underwater Earthquakes:
• A tsunami is evident when there is uplift or subsidence, not in the transform fault.
• Underwater volcanic eruptions:
• Other than earthquakes, volcanic eruptions also cause tsunami waves.
• Land subsidence:
• Many different islands suddenly become weak and collapse, hence causing a
vertical displacement.
• E. g. Krakatoa Volcano has smaller islands, which can collapse, and cause tsunamis.
Stages of Tsunami: (9:33 AM)
• Tsunami is the Japanese word for harbor waves.
• It is also called seismic sea waves.
• There are four stages in the existence of a Tsunami:
• Generation:
• There should be vertical displacement of water caused by volcanic, earthquakes
along normal and reverse faults, subsidence, nuclear explosions, etc.
• Propagation in Deepwater:
 • In deep waters the velocity/speed of the wave is high, and the amplitude is low,
therefore, the tsunami is not visible in the open ocean, nor does it cause any
damage.
• Propagation in Shallow water: (10:01 AM)
• As the waves approach the coast, due to the decrease in-depth, the waves slow
down, and the amplitude increases, causing the piling up of water near the coast.
• This results in the generation of very high waves near the coast which is called
the shoaling effect.
• Landfall of Tsunami:
• It is the fourth stage, which causes widespread damage to life and property.
Exogenetic Movements: (10:06 AM)
• These are the earth’s movements caused due to various forces from outside the
Earth’s surface.
• The source of energy includes solar energy and gravity.
• Exogenetic movements involve Aggradation and Degradation.
Aggradation: (10:10 AM)
• Aggradation is the action of various processes that cause deposition on the surface,
in order to bring uniformity of grade (grade refers to the slope).
• Aggradation is mostly deposition.
Degradation or denudation:
• It is the combined action of various processes that cause the wearing away of the
earth’s surface and causes a general lowering or leveling out of the surface.
• Degradation or denudation includes Weathering, Erosion, Mass movements (e.g.
landslides).
Weathering (10:20 AM)
• It is the total effect of various processes that cooperate in bringing about the decay
and disintegration of rocks involving no large-scale transportation.
• Weathering is in-situ and it does not involve the transportation of degraded rock
material.
Rock type and structure:
• It includes rock massiveness, porosity, permeability, presence of fractures, bedding
planes, etc. Example:
• Sedimentary rocks are weathered faster than igneous rocks.
Slope and aspect:
• A steep slope will greatly aid weathering, as disintegrated material will immediately
flow down.
• Slopes that are exposed to wind and rain are more prone to weathering.
• Climatic factures: Temperature and Water.
Temperature (10:41 AM)
• A considerable range of temperature, both diurnal as well as annual subjects the
surface layer to expansion and contraction.
• Temperature also increases the rate of chemical reactions.
• Heat causes the rocks to expand, the minerals tend to expand.
• When there are colder temperatures, rocks will lose heat and become contracted.
• For example: In deserts, day time, rocks expand, on colder nights, rocks shrink.
• Hence, the rocks become weak due to such changes.
• The temperature also decides the rate of chemical reactions in the water.
Water:
 • The presence or absence of water decides chemical reactions.
• When water is added or removed it imposes physical stress on the rock and causes
it to break.
• Water exerts a huge amount of pressure by freezing and unfreezing.
Biological Factors (10:50 AM)
• Biological factors include the action of plant roots, decomposing vegetation
(chemicals are released), microorganisms, and burrowing animals (earthworms,
rabbits, etc.).
• Physical/mechanical, chemical, and biological weathering.
Mechanical/Physical Weathering:
• The disintegration of rocks without any chemical change.
• Factors such as temperature, moisture, frost action, and wind cause the physical
break up of rocks.
• It is more rapid in desert climates.
• Rocks are affected to great depths.
• Its agents are temperature and moisture.
Chemical weathering:
• Decomposition of rocks takes place and results in a chemical change.
• Temperature, moisture, etc. cause minerals to either dissolve in water or change
their composition.
• It occurs in moist and cold climates.
• It mostly takes place near the surface of the earth.
• Its agents are water, oxygen, carbon, and various organic acids.
Types of Weathering: (11:26 AM)
• Physical/Mechanical Weathering:
• Crystal Growth: It involves two types of crystal growth water and salt.
• Salt weathering:
• The growth of Salt Crystals by crystallization as moisture evaporates creates
pressure in pore spaces and cracks.
• It is also called haloclasty.
• Growth of water crystals:
• When water freezes, it causes an increase in volume.
• When water finds its way into cracks or pores, it wedges apart, rock fissures, and
joints.
• In desert regions, it results in frost shattering, and in glacial regions, it causes
freeze-thawing.
Pressure/Thermal Expansion: (11:40 AM)
• Pressure release: When the confining pressure from the weight of overlying rocks
is released, it causes the rocks to expand, leading to the development of fractures.
• Exfoliation:
• The rapid expansion and contraction of surface rocks weaken the hard outer shell
creating fissures, causing the rock shell to peel off.
• Block disintegration:
• Where the rock disintegrates into different blocks.
• Granular disintegration:
• Where the rock breaks down into small granules.
Chemical Weathering: (11:45 AM)
• Hydrolysis:
 • It is a chemical union of water and mineral.
• It involves specific chemical changes in which new material is produced called a
solution.
• Hydration:
• It occurs when minerals incorporate water into their molecular structure.
• It causes swelling.
• Oxidation/Reduction:
• It involves the addition or removal of oxygen.
• This causes discoloration, and they are the first visible signs of chemical
weathering.
• Carbonation:
• Rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide as it falls through the air.
• And it gets converted into carbonic acid.
• Limestones and dolomite, are altered by the dissolving action of carbonic acids.
Biological weathering: (11:53 AM)
• It involves the breaking of particles by burrowing animals, the pressure exerted by
plant roots, etc.
• The decomposing organic matter releases different chemicals which may increase
the rate of weathering.
• Reactions with minerals by organisms such as chemotrophic bacteria may bring
changes in rocks.
Topics for the next class: Erosion, Mass movements, etc

An overview of the previous class was given (9.08 AM)

Denudation (9.22 AM)
• Erosion- without weathering we cannot have erosion, then transportation is
required for the weathered material.
• Dictation
• Erosion refers to the wearing away of land surface by the mechanical action of
debris derived from weathering as they are transported to different locations by
agents like wind, water, glacier, etc.
Types of erosion (9.30 AM)
• Abrasion- it is the wearing away of surfaces by mechanical processes like rubbing,
scratching, polishing, etc. Abrasion in water is called corrasion.
• Attrition- involves a reduction in the size of fragments by friction and impact
during transportation. Attrition breaks down the load (sediments) into finer
sediments.
• It is also used in human resource management- how many people are leaving the
organization is known as the attrition rate.
 • Cavitation- is specific to water. It leads to an explosion sending a shock wave that
tends to disintegrate the adjacent rocks.
• Corrosion- involves the wearing away of particles by the solvent and chemical
action of water.
• Deflation- lifting and removal of dust and sand by wind is called deflation. It
involves areal action removing unconsolidated material.
• Hydraulic action- The breaking of rocks by fast-moving water is called hydraulic
action. Eg- river etc.
• Plucking- as the glaciers move, they pluck and drag the rocks and disintegrate
them into smaller pieces.
Mass movement (10.05 AM)
• Mass movement- is the movement of weathered material under the influence of
gravity with or without the assistance of water.
• The defining factor is gravity.
• Soil creep- the slow downhill movement of the soil and weathered mantle
occurring on slopes is called soil creep.
• It is a continuous movement and difficult to notice.
• Solifluction- involves the slow movement of soil mixed with water as a viscous
fluid. It is more active in glacial regions.
• Land Slides (10.27 AM)- the movement of a cross-section of a hill slope under the
influence of gravity is called a landslide.
• The material maintains continuous contact with the surface as it moves.
• Earth flow- forms on terraces and hillsides where they are capable of flowage
when saturated with water that occurs beneath the surface layer.
• Mudflow- faster movement of solifluction. It involves the rapid movement of
masses of uncompacted soil that is suddenly saturated with water.
• There is more water content. In earth flow, the water is not visible. It has seeped
down.
• Rockslide or rockfall- the rapid movement of rock material along a bedding plane is
called a rock slide and in the vertical fall, it is called a rockfall.
• NCERT 11- Chapter 7 to be referred
Topography/ Landforms (11.01 AM)
• There are 5 major types of topography:
• River- Riverine
• Underground water- Karst
• Coastal- Marines
• Wind- Arid/ Desert
• Glacier- Glacial
• Topics to be discussed: Processes: conditions
• Erosional features; Depositional features (names are important)
Riverine topography (11.08 AM)
• It is formed due to the river.
• There are 3 stages: Youth, mature and old.
• Diagram at 11.13 am
• In the youth stage- there is only erosion and no deposition in most places.
• Vertical erosion
• The speed of water is very high.
• The width of the river valley is narrow.
 • No meander
• In the mature stage, there is both erosion and deposition.
• When the river is taking turns, it is lateral erosion (as the river meanders here).
• The speed of water is moderate.
• The width of the river valley is moderate.
• Meandering happens here.
• Old stage- only deposition
• No erosion
• The speed of water is very low.
• The width of the river valley is very wide.
• High meandering
• There are 2 types of erosion:
• Vertical- when the river erodes vertical- V-shaped valley
• Lateral erosion- horizontal erosion. Eg- in case of meandering.

Erosional Depositional
Topography Processes
features features

V-shaped
valleys
Gorge Slip off-slope
(Satluj, (meander)
Brahmputra- Flood plain
where there is Levee-
hard resistant embankment
rock- the formed due to
gorge is deposition on
formed) the sides of
Canyon- the riverbank.
River is Oxbow lake
passing delta- where
Corrasion, through the river is
Attrition, sedimentary entering from
Riverine (river Cavitation, rock plains to
water- fluvial) Corrosion, A Gorge is oceans.
Hydraulic formed at one Fine materials
action particular Alluvial fan-
place where the
whereas a river is
canyon is entering from
continuous. mountains to
The top plains. there is
portion of the a difference in
canyon is elevation.
wide (it is not Coarse
the case with material.
the gorge). Estuary
Waterfall-
smaller
version of the
 waterfall is
called a
cataract and a
smaller
version of a
cataract is
called a
rapid.
Due to the
waterfall,
water gets
accumulated
at the base of
the waterfall.
This is
known as a
plunge pool.
Potholes-
water swirls
around the
potholes.
They are
depressions.
River cliff
(meander)

The topic for the next class: Landforms- Karst, Marine, Glacial(to be continued...)

Revision: (9:05 AM)

• Erosional and depositional landforms.
• River Capture.
• The diversion of the headwaters of one river into a neighboring river is called river
capture.
Karst Topography: (9:16 AM)
• Agent: Groundwater.
• Moderate to high rainfall.
• Rich in dolomite, limestone.
• Abrasions, corrosion, erosion, etc.
 • Hydraulic action is not that prominent in Karst Topography.
• Cave diving is popular in the Karst Topography regions.
• The Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico is such an example.
• There is a shortage of water, as it seeps inside.
• Aggtelek Yugoslavia.
• Mexico: Yucatan Penninsula
• In Southeast Asia:
• Thailand, Cambodia.
• Meghalaya in India.
• Western Australia.
Erosional Landforms associated with Karst Topography:
Sink Holes: (9:36 AM)
• Small depressions are formed by erosion.
• Formed by water, which melts the.
Swallow Hole:
• It is shallower and wider.
• When multiple sinkholes merge, they form Doline.
• Multiple dolines merging together is Uvalas.
• Blind valley: When a river starts to flow underground.
• Cave formation: When river water starts to flow underground, it creates huge
caves.
Depositional landforms associated with Karst Topography: (9:46 AM)
• Stalactite: Deposits hang from the roof of a cave.
• Stalagmite: Upward mound formed due to deposition of minerals.
• Cave Pillar: Continued deposition will result in the merging of stalactites and
stalagmites.
Marine Topography: (9:51 AM)
• Agent of erosion: Coastal waters.
Processes:
• Abrasion,
• Attrition,
• Cavitation,
• Corrosion,
• Hydraulic Action.
Erosional landforms in marine topography: (9:58 AM)
• Cliffs: Land erodes and moves back, and it becomes steep.
• Hanging Valley: Due to erosion and glaciation.
• Wavecut platform: The land has been eroded by the waves.
• Bay: Bay is semicircular in shape.
• Sea caves,
• Arch,
• Stacks are also formed.
• Stump: A smaller version of the stack is called a stump.
Depositional marine landforms:
• Weave-built platform.
• Beaches.
• Sand bar.
• Sandspit.
 • Tombolo.
• Lagoons: Chilika, Pulicat, Vembanad (Kerala).
Arid/Desert Topography: (10:24 AM)
• Agent: Winds.
• Processes that are active in arid topography:
• Abrasion due to the wind.
• Attrition is also present.
• Deflation.
Erosional landforms associated with arid topography:
• Deflation hollows.
• Mushroom rocks.
• Ventifacts are formed due to: Smoothening of the surface due to the wind action.
• Zeugen: Horizontal hard-soft structure.
• Yardang: Vertical rocks structure (soft, hard parallelly).
• Inselberg: Isolated remnant hill structure.
Depositional arid landforms: (10:39 AM)
• Sand Dunes: Deposition of sand, in different shapes and sizes.
• Deposited due to winds.
• Barchan, Parabolic, and Seif (half-barchan) are various crescent-type sand dunes.
• Transverse Sand Dunes: The one which is perpendicular to the wind direction.
• Longitudinal sand dunes: Parallel to wind direction.
• Bolson Lake: Also called Playa Lake, is a depression in desert topography.
Glacial Topography: (11:07 AM)
• Agents: Glaciers.
Processes:
• Abrasion,
• Plucking,
• Attrition.
Erosional features formed by glacial erosion: (11:13 AM)
• Nivation hallow,
• Cirque: Formed as mountain valley heads.
• Arete
• Horn,
• Col,
• U-shaped valley,
• Hanging valley,
• Fjords.
Depositional features due to glacial action: (11:37 AM)
• Unstratified sediments carried by glaciers are called moraines.
• This includes Lateral moraines, Medial moraines, End Moraines, etc.
• Tillite:
• Till is a kind of fine sediment.
• In tillite, clay and till are mixed.
• Drumlins: Oval-shaped hills formed due to glacial drift.
• Eskers: They are ridges formed due to glacial deposition.
Climatology: (11:49 AM)
• The overall study of the earth's climate and atmosphere.
• This includes:
 • Weather and climate,
• Composition of atmosphere,
• Structure of atmosphere,
• Insolation, Heat Budget, and Albedo,
• Temperature and Inversion of temperature,
• Pressure, Planetary Winds,
• Seasonal winds and Local winds
• Humidity, Evaporation & Condensation,
• Types of Clouds and Precipitation,
• Jet Streams,
• Air Masses,
• Temperate Cyclones and Tropical Cyclones,
• Climate regions.
Climate: (12:01 PM)
• It is the average atmospheric conditions of an area over a considerable period of
time, which is calculated for a minimum of 30 years.
• Observing the weather for about 30 years.
• Over a long period of time.
• Climate includes the factors of rainfall, temperature, humidity, air pressure, winds,
etc.
Weather: (12:03 PM)
• Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere of a particular location.
• Happens on day to day basis.
• Which changes regularly, and is taken as an indication of a short period of time.
• The weather reflects the condition of the atmosphere.
The topic for the next class: Composition and Structure of Atmosphere

Revision: (9:11 AM)

• Marine landforms.
• Tombolo.
• Karst topography.
• Doline, etc.
Atmosphere: (9:21 AM)
• The layer of air surrounding the earth is held by gravity.
• It is a thick gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth from all sides and is
attached to the earth’s surface by gravitational force.
Composition of atmosphere:
Constituent Formula Percentage by Volume
Nitrogen N2 78.08
Oxygen O2 20.95
Argon Ar 0.93
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.036
Neon Ne 0.002
Helium He 0.0005
Krypto Kr 0.001
Xenon Xe 0.00009
Hydrogen H2 0.00005

Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere: (9:28 AM)

Nitrogen:
• Essential for life.
• The building block of amino acids and protein.
• It cannot be directly absorbed into the body.
• It is not a very active gas.
Oxygen:
• It is chemically active.
• Forms compound with other elements.
• Consumed during respiration by both plants and animals.
• Released by plants only, during photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide: (9:34 AM)
• Millions of years of precipitation reduced the proportion of Carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
• For the greenhouse effect, we need CO2, to maintain the stable temperature of the
earth.
Water vapor:
• One of the most variable gases in the atmosphere.
• Precipitation, cloud formation, etc.
• Associated with weather phenomenon.
• 90% of water vapor is concentrated up to 6 km.
• Water vapor is a greenhouse gas.
Dust particles: (9:43 AM)
• Weathering process creates dust particles.
• These particles are blown away by winds.
• They are mostly present in the troposphere.
• Most important function: They act as hygroscopic nuclei.
• Hence, they help in condensation and precipitation.
• Volcanic eruptions are also the source of dust particles.
Structure of atmosphere (9:49 AM)
• The inner layer is the homosphere, the outer layer is called as heterosphere.
• Homosphere:
• It extends up to 80 km.
• Uniform mixture of gases.
• The homosphere contains water vapor and dust particles.
 • Heterosphere:
• It is beyond 80 km.
• A separate layer of gases.
• Gases are in atomic form.
• In the heterosphere, there are no water vapor and dust particles.
Troposphere: (10:12 AM)
• It extends from the surface to up to 16 km along the tropics and 6 km along the
poles.
• It contains 75% of all the gases.
• It is also called a zone of turbulence and convection.
• All the weather phenomena are restricted to the troposphere due to the presence
of water vapor and dust particles.
• It is also called as friction layer, the temperature decreases at the rate of 6.5
degrees per kilometer which is called as normal lapse rate.
• The end of the troposphere is the tropopause.
• Mixing stops here.
Stratosphere: (10:20 AM)
• It extends from the tropopause to up to 50 kilometers.
• It is called so because the layers are stratified and non-convective in nature.
• The temperature rises in the stratosphere, due to the absorption of UV radiation by
the Ozone in this layer.
• The conditions are extremely dry except few rare clouds called stratospheric
clouds.
• For example, Mother of Pearl, Nacreous clouds.
• The top layer of the stratosphere is stratopause.
Mesosphere: (10:50 AM)
• Extends between stratopause and up to 80 km.
• Temperature decreases with height.
• And reaches up to -100 degrees celsius, which is the lowest in the atmosphere.
• The top layer of the mesosphere is mesopause.
Thermosphere: (10:52 AM)
• It extends from 80 km to up to 500 - 700 km.
• The temperature rises rapidly in this layer.
• In the lower part it is Nitrogen, and then oxygen.
• It consists of a lower nitrogen layer and upper oxygen layer in atomic form.
• The temperature rises rapidly in the thermosphere due to the absorption of high-
energy solar radiation.
• And it reaches 1200 degrees celsius at 350 km.
Exosphere: (11:11 AM)
• It extends from the edge of the thermosphere up to the vacuum.
• It contains atomic oxygen, helium, and hydrogen.
• It contains the magnetosphere which is composed of electrons and protons derived
from solar winds and other charged particles.
• They are arranged in two bands at 3000 km and 16000 km.
• Called as Van Allen Radiation Belt.
Ionosphere:
• It extends between 100 to 650 km.
• It is formed due to ionization by solar radiation.
 • And is made up of different layers.
• It helps in radiocommunication on the earth’s surface by reflecting back short wave
radio waves.
Karman Line: (11:22 AM)
• It is the boundary where outer space begins.
• It is 100 km from sea level.
• International law does not define the limit of airspace, and this line is agreed upon
for aircraft navigation, and it is not a legal boundary.
Insolation: (11:31 AM)
• Insolation is the amount of incoming solar radiation.
• The amount of insolation received by the earth is 2 billionth of solar energy.
• The amount received on the surface is equal to 1.92/cm2/min. Which is called a
solar constant.
Terrestrial Radiation: (11:40 AM)
• The incoming solar radiation is shorter in wavelength and this radiation is absorbed
by Earth’s surface and is reemitted as long-wavelength radiation, called terrestrial
radiation.
• The atmosphere is transparent to incoming solar radiation and is opaque to
outgoing terrestrial radiation.
• The warming of Earth’s atmosphere and its surface by the absorption of terrestrial
radiation by some of the gases is called the greenhouse effect.
• And the gases responsible are called Greenhouse gases (GHG).
• Examples, Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Hydrofluoro Carbon (HFC),
Perfluoro Carbon, SF6 (Sulfurhexaflouride), and Water Vapour.
• Since the earth’s surface absorbs the incoming solar radiation and emits terrestrial
radiation, it acts as a source of heat for the atmosphere.
• Therefore, temperature decrease with height, which is called a normal lapse rate.
Methods of Heat Transfer: (11:57 AM)
• Radiation: Transfer of heat in the form of radiant energy.
• Conduction: Transfer of heat through molecular activity at the zone of contact.
• Convection: Transfer of heat by vertical movement of mass.
• Advection: Transfer of heat by horizontal movement of mass.
The topic for the next class: Heat Budget, etc

Revision: (9:15 AM)

• Troposphere: Mixing zone.
• Stratosphere: Where the air is stratified.
• Rarely clouds are found in Stratosphere too.
• Mesosphere and Thermosphere.
• Exosphere: Gases are very rare.
 • Exosphere also contains Van Allen Belt.
Factors affecting insolation received on the surface: (9:29 AM)
Latitude (Angle of incidence):
• Latitude affects the insolation received per unit area of surface and the amount of
insolation absorbed.
• Near the lower latitudes, insolation is concentrated in a small area.
• It is distributed over a large area in higher latitudes.
Length of the day:
• Longer the day, the more insolation received on the surface.
Transparency of atmosphere:
• Factors such as cloud cover, particulate matter, etc. reduce the transparency of the
atmosphere and the amount of insolation received on the surface.
Heat Budget: (9:42 AM)
• On the global scale, the earth must release as much heat back to space as it
receives from the sun.
• This is necessary in order to maintain the uniform temperature of the earth.
• The gains and losses in the heat by way of incoming solar radiation and outgoing
terrestrial radiation are called as heat budgets.
Out of 100 units:
• 65 units are absorbed and 35 units are reflected.
• 27: by clouds.
• 2 units by the earth’s surface.
• 6 by scattering.
• Out of absorbed (65 units):
• 51 units are absorbed by the surface.
• 14 units are absorbed by the atmosphere.
Out of 51 units (absorbed by surface): 10:06 AM
• 17 is released by the surface directly to space.
• The remaining 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere.
• Hence a total of 48 units are released by the atmosphere to space.
• Outgoing: 17+48+35 units (total 100 units).
Albedo of the earth: (10:10 AM)
• Albedo is the ratio between the incoming and reflected amount of solar radiation
by the earth as a whole.
• It is also called as ‘reflection coefficient.
• The average albedo of Earth is 35% or 0.35.
• Albedo is the ratio of reflection/incoming radiation.
• How much proportion is reflected as it is?
• The proportion is called the Albedo of that surface.
• The nature or color of the surface of the object decides the Albedo of that surface.
• The average albedo or overall albedo of earth is 35% or 0.35.
Sample Albedos of Earth: (10:20 AM)
Surface: Typical albedo
Fresh asphalt: 0.04
Open Ocean 0.06
Worn asphalt 0.12
Conifer forest (Summer) 0.8 to 0.15
Deciduous trees 0.15 to 0.18
Bare soil 0.17
Green grass 0.25
Desert sand 0.4
New concrete 0.55
Ocean ice 0.5-0.7
Fresh snow 0.8-0.9
Temperature: (10:48 AM)
• The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature.
Factors affecting temperature:
• Insolation:
• It is one of the major factors, of higher insolation, and more temperature.
• It depends on three factors:
• Latitude,
• length of the day,
• and Transparency
• Insolation is more intense in lower latitudes than in higher ones causing high
temperatures across tropical regions than in temperate and polar.
• Although the sun’s rays are vertical along the equator, they will not have maximum
temperature due to cloud cover.
Nature of the surface: (10:53 AM)
Specific Heat:
• Earth behaves differently depending on the specific heat of the substance.
• The land surface with lower specific heat heats up more rapidly and intensely than
the water surface.
• And land cools rapidly too.
Continentality:
• Distance from the sea.
• The locations which are interior of the continent will have a higher range of
temperatures than coastal locations.
• For example, Delhi experiences hotter summers and colder winters than Mumbai.
Distribution of Continents and Oceans:
• Northern Hemisphere, with more proportion of land than oceans, experiences a
higher range of temperatures than the Southern Hemisphere which has more water
surface.
Altitude:
• Temperature decreases with increasing altitude, due to Normal Lapse Rate.
Winds and Ocean Currents: (11:08 AM)
• Winds moving from one place to another regulate the temperature.
• For E.g., colder winds coming to hotter regions.
• It helps in the distribution of heat.
• Ocean currents:
 • They transport temperatures prevailing in one region to another and help in the
global distribution of temperature.
Distribution of temperature:
• The temperature is higher near the tropical region and moderate in temperate
regions and very low in polar regions.
• Isotherms move northward between January and July.
• Isotherms move southward between July and January.
• Isotherms bend poleward over the oceans in January (winters NH).
• Isotherms bend equatorward over the oceans in July.
• Seasonal variations are more marked in the southern hemisphere than in the
northern hemisphere.
• Northern Hemisphere experiences Hotter summers and colder winters than SH.
• Range of temperature increases as we move from the equator toward the poles.
Normal Lapse Rate:
• The average rate of decrease of temperature with an increase in altitude in the
atmosphere is called Normal Lapse Rate.
Temperature Inversion: (11:52 AM)
• Certain special conditions in the atmosphere, mainly 2 may lead to a reversal of the
normal lapse rate.
• So that temperature increases with altitude.
• This phenomenon is called temperature inversion.
The topic for the next class: Atmospheric Pressure, etc

Geography Class 23
• A brief review of the previous class
Radiation Inversion [9:20 AM]
• It occurs during the conditions of long winter nights, clear cloudless sky, and calm
windless conditions.
• The land surface radiates heat more rapidly during the nights therefore the air just
above the surface is colder and is overlaid by warmer air.
• This results in an increase in temperature with altitude creating Temperature
inversion.
• It is more frequent on winter nights and in snow-covered areas.
• Air Drainage type of inversion
• The mountain slopes and tops experience rapid fall in temperature during nights
however, the valley side and the floor will be warmer due to radiation exchange.
• The cooler and denser air from the top will start to sink to the floor under gravity.
The warmer air rests over the cooler air producing temperature inversion.
• Advection Inversion
 • It is produced when a thick layer of warm air passes over a cold surface or water
body creating a temperature inversion layer.
• Frontal Inversion
• It is caused due to Frontal convergence of air masses. The warmer air is forced
from the ground by undercutting of colder air leading to Temperature Inversion
where warm air is lying above the cold air.
Significance of Temperature inversion [9:43 AM]
• It creates stability in the air and prevents precipitation.
• Creation of Fog
• Temperature inversion results in the creation of Fog which reduces visibility
disrupting the transportation network.
• Stability induced by temperature inversion reduces the dispersal of pollutants
causing them to be trapped for a longer duration.
• The mixing of the pollutants with Fog results in Smog which is a thick layer
with trapped pollutants and harmful for Human Health.
• Smog further enhances stability and prevails for a longer duration.
• Along Mountain regions, the Valley floor is avoided for human settlements as far as
agriculture. E.g. Coffee plantations in Brazil and apple orchards in Himanchal
Pradesh avoid valley floors.
Mean daily Temperature [10:05 AM]
• Mean Daily temperature= Sum of temperature for 24 hours/ 24
• Diurnal Range of Temperature=Daily Maximum-Daily minimum
• Mean Monthly Temperature= Mean Daily temperature/30
• Annual Range of temperature= Highest mean Monthly Temperature- Lowest mean
Monthly Temperature
• Highest recorded temperature- Al Aziziya of Libya (58 degrees, SAHARA region)
and Death Valley of USA (56.7 degrees celsius)
• The lowest temperature on earth- Vostok Station (-88 degrees Celsius, Antarctica)
PRESSURE [10:13 AM]
• Force per unit area
• Atmospheric pressure
• Millibar/Pascal is the unit of measuring Atmospheric pressure
• Pressure is the force experienced per unit area. Atmospheric pressure is the
pressure exerted by Earth’s atmosphere.
• The atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in altitude. The average
atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1013 Mb. It is measured using a barometer.
• Isobars are lines connecting places with uniform pressure. Pressure Systems
involved concentric Isobars with low pressure or high pressure at the center.
Factors Affecting Pressure [10:47 AM]
• 1. Temperature
• In the atmosphere when air is heated it expands and the outward spread of
molecules is spread over a larger area. Therefore the pressure of air decreases.
When air is cooled it contracts to cause an increase in pressure.
• 2. Altitude
• the pressure of air at ground level is higher than that of higher altitude therefore
when air rises its volume increases and pressure decreases.
• When air sinks its volume decreases and pressure increases.
• 3. Rotation
 • it causes air at the poles to be thrown away towards the equator.
• If we consider the effect of rotation only air piling up along the equator produces a
belt of high pressure and at the poles a belt of low pressure.
Global Pressure Belts [11:17 AM]
• Air rising at the equator due to high temperature causes convection resulting in
the development of a low-pressure belt at the equator.
• The air rising at the equator spreads out as it reaches the top of the Troposphere
and moves towards polar regions.
• As the air converges towards Pole its density increases and begins to sink leading
to High-Pressure Belt at 30 degrees N/S.
• Some of the high-pressure air moves towards the equator and some toward the
Poles.
• The air moving towards the equator replaces the air rising there.
• Low temperature at poles results in contraction and development of High Pressure.
• The air blowing away from the poles spread out to greater space and pressure falls
leading to Low-Pressure Belt along 60 degrees N/S.
• Some of the air from subtropical High moving towards the poles reaches 60 degrees
N/S and converges with air from the Poles leading to convection along 60 degrees
N/S.
• the upper-end movement of the sun between the tropics causes different pressure
belts to shift towards the N/S of the equator.
The topic of the next class- The distribution of Pressure over the earth

Distribution of Pressure Belts: (9:22 AM)

Pressure in January:
• The equatorial low-pressure belt extends well into the Southern Hemisphere.
• The Subtropical High-Pressure Belt of the Southern Hemisphere is found only over
the oceans.
• The low temperature in the northern hemisphere produces a continuous high-
pressure system.
Pressure in July:
• The equatorial low-pressure belt extends well into the northern hemisphere,
linking the low-pressure systems of India and Tibet.
• Subtropical High-Pressure Belt in Northern Hemisphere exists only over the oceans.
• The Subtropical high-pressure belt in Southern Hemisphere forms a continuous
belt.
Winds: (9:29 AM)
• Air in motion is called wind.
Factors affecting winds are:
1. Pressure Gradient Force:
• The rate of change of pressure w.r.t. Distance is called Pressure Gradient.
• The pressure differentials in the atmosphere cause the movement of air from high
pressure to low pressure areas.
 • The force causing this movement is called Pressure Gradient Force.
• Pressure Gradient Force is higher when isobars are placed closely.
2. Frictional Force:
• Any moving object near to land surface experiences a frictional force in the
direction opposite to that of its movement.
• It is maximum along with the land than over oceans and is higher near the surface.
3. Coriolis Force:
• It is a frictional force produced due to the rotation of the Earth.
• It is the combined effect of centrifugal force, angular velocity, and variation in
speed of rotation at different latitudes.
• Coriolis Force causes any moving object to deflect towards the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and towards the left in the Sothern Hemisphere.
• The degree of Coriolis Force depends upon:
• 1. Wind velocity: Higher the wind velocity, the more the Coriolis force.
• 2. Latitude: Coriolis Force is zero at the equator and increases towards the poles.
• 3. Speed of rotation of Earth: Higher the speed, the greater the Coriolis force.
Geostrophic Winds: (10:24 AM)
• At certain latitudes, when isobars are straight the Pressure Gradient Force is
balanced by Coriolis Force in the absence of frictional force.
• The resultant wind blows parallel to the isobars, this wind is called Geostrophic
Wind.
The pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and Anticyclones: (10:30 AM)

The pattern of Wind Direction

Pressure Condition at the

Pressure System
Center
Northern Hemisphere / Southern Hemisphere

Cyclone Low Anticlockwise Clockwise

Anticyclone High Clockwise Anticlockwise

Types of Winds: (10:49 AM)

• Planetary/Primary Winds.
• Secondary WInds.
• Local Winds.
Planetary Winds:
• They are the winds blowing over the planet throughout the year along the specific
latitudes.
Trade winds (Easterlies):
• They are from subtropical high to equatorial low.
• In German trade means ‘track’.
• Trade winds blow in the same direction throughout the year.
 • Trade winds are dry and stable in the area of origin, i.e. subtropical high-pressure
belt.
• Moving towards the equator, it picks up moisture and causes rainfall along the
eastern margins of the continent.
• Reaching the western margins, the trade winds are devoid of moisture and cause
no precipitation.
• Therefore, the western margins of continents that experience offshore trade winds
are deserts.
• For example Sahara Desert of Africa, and the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa.
Westerlies: (11;25 AM)
• Blow from subtropical high to temperate low.
• The vast landmass in Northern Hemisphere obstructs the westerlies.
• In Southern Hemisphere, they blow strongly and consistently due to the huge water
expanse.
• For Example, Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties, Shrinking Sixties.
• Polar Easterlies:
• They blow from the Polar High-pressure belt to Temperate Low-pressure Belt.
• They are extremely cold, stable, and dry.
• They blow for long-distance and affect the climate.
ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone): (11:34 AM)
• It is the zone of convergence of the trade winds from both sides of the tropics.
• It is centered on the equator and extends up to 5 degrees North and South.
• The conditions are low pressure, high temperature, calm and windless.
• They are also called Doldurm zones.
Horse Lattitude: (11:40 AM)
• The subtropical regions are called Horse Latitudes.
• Zone of the subtropical high-pressure belt.
• Due to vertically descending winds, this is the region of light and calm conditions.
Tricellular Meridional Circulation: (11:44 AM)
• The surface winds blow from high pressure to low-pressure areas.
• But in the upper atmosphere, the direction of air circulation is opposite to surface
winds.
• This together with convection and subsidence, along with low-pressure belts and
high-pressure belts, result in three cellular circulations along each meridian, called
Tricellular Meridional Circulation.
• The three cells are Hadley Cell, Ferrel Cell, and Polar Cell.
Seasonal Winds: (11:49 AM)
• The seasonal difference in the temperature and pressure conditions cause the
movement of air, and subsequent winds blowing in particular seasons are called
seasonal winds.
• For example, South-West Monsoon winds.
Local Winds: (11:51 AM)
• The differences in heating and cooling of earth surfaces, and the cycles that
develop daily or annually, can create several common winds, called local winds, or
regional winds.
The topic for the next class: Land/Sea Breeze
Revision:
• Coriolis Force depends on Speed of rotation, Latitude.
• At the equator, Coriolis is zero, maximum at poles.
• Trade winds, doldrums, their origin relevance.
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze: (9:16 AM)
• The land is heated more quickly than the adjacent sea during daytime.
• Therefore, low pressure is developed over the land and high pressure over the
adjacent sea.
• This causes the circulation of relatively cool air from the sea to adjacent land, called
as sea breeze.
• Rapid loss of heat from the land causes reversal of daytime pressure conditions,
leading to high pressure on land and low pressure over ocean.
• Wind blows from land to sea, causing a land breeze.
• Fishermen near coastal regions use these winds for fishing.
Mountain and Valley Breeze: (9:21 AM)
• During the daytime, mountain slopes heat up rapidly compared to valleys.
• This results in the air from the valley moving up along the slopes called valley
breeze or anabatic winds.
• At night, the temperature difference between mountain slopes and valleys is
reversed, causing winds to blow from mountains to the valley, called mountain
breeze or katabatic winds.
World Map Drawing: (9:34 AM)
• Map drawing needs an understanding of the size of various continents.
• The shape of different coastlines is important.
• We can start by drawing South America.
• Important regions: Gulf of Mexico, Alaska, etc. can be drawn in North America.
• Africa: Bun of Africa, then horn, and other shapes.
• Asia: India, South East Asia, China, Korea, etc. can be drawn, also Japan as an island
nation.
• Mediterranian Sea, Black Sea, and the Caspian Sea should be taken care of.
• Australia: Can be drawn like a bun with spikes.
Hot winds of the world: (10:22 AM)
• Chinook: North America. From west to east.
• Foehn: In Europe, from South to North.
• Harmattan: In Nigeria, from North East to South West.
• Haboob: In Sudan, no specific direction.
• Sirocco: Blows in the Sahara Desert, from South to North. Sirocco causes blood rain
in Europe.
• Khamsin: In Egypt, Sirocco is called Khamsin.
• Ghibli: In Libya Sirocco is called Ghibli.
• In Tunisia, it is called Chili.
• Berg: Hot wind in South Africa, coming from East to West.
 • Samoon: Hot wind of Iran and Iraq. Samoon is also called as poison wind.
• Karaburan: Hot wind in Northern China and Mongolia. Direction: North-East to
South-West.
Cold Winds:
• Blizzard: in Northern America.
• Buran: in Siberia.
• South America: Pampero cold wind, coming from the South Pole, in Argentina.
• Southerly: Cold winds of Australia, coming from the South.
• Levant: Cold winds of Southern Spain, direction: East to West.
• Mistral: Cold wind of France and Spain, coming from North to South.
• Bora: Cold wind from Earstwile Yugoslavia, from land to sea.
Humidity, Evaporation, and Condensation (11:16 AM)
Humidity:
• Water in gaseous form, or water vapor in the atmosphere, is called as humidity.
• It helps in energy balance, on the surface of the earth, through evaporation and
condensation.
• Ways of measuring water vapor in the atmosphere:
• Specific Humidity: It is the ratio of the weight of water vapor in grams to the
weight of air expressed as grams per kg of air.
• It always remains the same irrespective of the volume of air.
• Absolute Humidity: It is the ratio of weight to water vapour in grams to the volume
of air in a Meter-cube. Expressed as: Grams per Meter-cube (gm/m3).
• Absolute humidity decreases with the expansion of air and increases with the
contraction of air.
• Relative Humidity: The ratio between the amount of moisture the air can hold at a
given temperature and the amount it actually holds expressed in percentage.
• Relative humidity (RH) decreases with an increase in temperature and increases
with a decrease in temperature.
• Air is said to be saturated when relative humidity is 100%.
Evaporation: (11:43 AM)
• It is the conversion of liquid water to water vapour.
Factors affecting evaporation:
• Temperature: Higher the temperature, the higher the evaporation.
• Wind speed: Higher the wind speed, the higher the rate of evaporation.
• Humidity: Higher the humidity, the lower the evaporation.
• The evaporation rate is higher in sub-tropical regions than in equatorial regions.
• Rate of evaporation is higher at 30 degrees>Equatorial region>60 degrees>Polar
region.
• The evaporation rate is higher over the oceans than over the land.
Condensation: (11:53 AM)
• Conversion of water vapor into liquid.
• Dew Point: The temperature at which condensation takes place is called as dew
point.
• If the condensation happens, below zero degrees celsius, the dew point is called as
frost point.
Topic for the next class: Condensation, precipitation (to be continued..
Condensation forms: (9:16 AM)
Dew:
• Dew is moisture deposited in the form of liquid water droplets in the atmosphere.
• The conditions favorable for the formation of dew are:
• Long winter night,
• Clear sky,
• And calm wind conditions.
Frost: (9:24 AM)
• A thin layer of ice on the solid surface is called frost.
• When the temperature of the surface falls below the freezing point, frost is formed.
Rime:
• Deposition of needle-like white opaque, icy crystals, on the surfaces having
temperatures below zero degrees celsius, is called rime.
Fog:
• Fog is a cloud that touches the ground.
• Fog is produced near the surface when the temperature of the airdrops suddenly.
• The visibility in fog is less than 1 km.
Mist:
• Mist is composed of small water droplets suspended in the air.
• It is similar to fog with visibility between 1 to 2 kilometers.
• It is common along with water bodies and in hilly regions.
Haze:
• Haze is formed in urban regions with a higher amount of smoke and dust particles.
• And humidity is less than 75%.
• Visibility is up to 2 km.
Types of fogs: (9:43 AM)
• Radiation inversion in radiation fog.
• Advection fog: Due to advection.
• Frontal fog: due to frontal inversion.
• Upslope fog: It is formed when warm and moist air rises along the upslope causing
it to cool down leading to the formation of fog.
Stability: (9:56 AM)
• It is the condition when air resists vertical movement and remains in its original
position.
• It is caused when the air is cooled at its base or along the regions of the high-
pressure belt where air subsides.
• As the air remains stable, precipitation is unlikely.
Instability: (10:05 AM)
• It is a condition where air does not resist vertical movement and leads to cloud
formation and precipitation.
• It occurs in regions of high temperatures and low pressure.
Different types of clouds: (10:08 AM)
 • Terms to be remembered:
• Cirrus: High altitude and feathery appearance.
• Alto: means Middle altitude, mid-altitude.
• Stratus: Layered.
• Cumulo: Means cottonwool-like or globular appearance.
• Nimbus: Rain-bearing or rain-causing (dark clouds).
Cirrus Clouds: (10:49 AM)
• Thin feather-like clouds, fibrous appearance.
• White in color,
• High altitude,
• Indicates fair weather.
Cirrocumulus:
• Patches of globular masses, at high altitudes.
• Also called Mackeral Sky.
Cirrostratus:
• Layered clouds, high altitude.
• Milky appearance
Altocumulus:
• Globular masses of clouds at middle altitudes.
Altostratus:
• Layered clouds along middle altitudes.
Stratus:
• Uniform layers of clouds near ground level.
• Produces light and drizzle.
Cumulus:
• A thick cloud of cotton wool appearance, with a dome-shaped cauliflower top.
Stratocumulus:
• Globular masses are regularly arranged at low altitudes.
Cumulonimbus Clouds:
• Overgrown cumulus clouds.
• Very dark, heavy, dense, with an anvil-top.
• Causes heavy rainfall with thunderstorms and lightning.
Conditions for cloud formation: (11:01 AM)
• Mechanism to uplift the moist air.
• Saturation and cooling of air below the dew point.
• Presence of hygroscopic nuclei, like dust particles around which water droplets can
accumulate and form clouds, and subsequently drop down as precipitation.
Types of rainfall: (11:16 AM)
Convectional rainfall:
• It occurs in the regions of intense heating near the ground surface, causing air to
expand and rise.
• Often it is accompanied by thunderstorms and lightning.
• It occurs throughout the year in equatorial regions and in summers in tropical
regions.
Orographic rainfall:
• When warm and moist air is forced to rise across mountain slopes, it cools down
causing precipitation along the windward side.
 • However, along the leeward side, the descending air will not cause precipitation
leading to the formation of a rainshadow area.
• Example: Western Ghats of India.
Frontal rainfall:
• It occurs along the regions of convergence of difference airmasses.
• It is best developed in the temperate regions where warm air mass rises above the
cold airmass causing precipitation.
Distribution of rainfall: (11:24 AM)
• Latitudinal distribution:
• The equatorial zone experiences maximum rainfall above 200 centimeters per
annum. (Due to convectional rainfall).
• Sub-tropical regions have minimum rainfall of 25 centimeters per annum. (High-
pressure belt, offshore trade winds, cold ocean currents).
• Mid-latitude regions have 125 centimeters of rainfalls.
Ocean v/s Land: (11:33 AM)
• Oceans receive more rainfall due to moist maritime airmass.
• Coastal regions receive higher rainfall due to moisture-laden winds from oceans.
Thunderstorms: (11:50 AM)
• Due to intense heating and strong vertical convection, cumulonimbus clouds are
formed.
• The raindrops in this cloud continuously move upwards generating electric charges
due to friction.
• Gradually, positive and negative charges accumulate on opposite sides of the
clouds.
• When both the types of charges are attracted to each other, a flash of light is
produced, called lightning.
• Lightning causes a vacuum in the cloud due to rapid heating and expansion of air.
• It is filled with surrounding cold air producing a clap of thunder.
Cloud Burst (conditions): (11:55 AM)
• Rapid convection is needed.
• Funneling of winds due to mountain topography.
• Forming clouds without precipitation for a long time.
The topic for the next class: Cloud Burst (dictation), etc

Cloud Burst: (9:14 AM)

• IMD defines cloud burst as rainfall over 10 cm in one hour over a small area of a few
kilometers.
• Conditions favorable for cloud burst:
• 1. Strong and rapid convection of highly humid and warm air.
 • 2. Funneling effect causing winds to rise over steep orography resulting in huge
dense clouds without precipitation.
• 3. The thin air along mountain regions cannot sustain such heavy clouds for a long
time causing the entire cloud to drop down together in a quick flash.
Tornado: (9:33 AM)
• A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that extends from a thunderstorm to
the ground.
• It appears like a funnel descending from a cloud.
• Wind speed goes up to 400 km/hr.
• It is formed when changes in wind speed and direction create a horizontal spinning
effect within the storm cloud.
• This effect is tipped vertically by rising air moving up through the thunderstorms.
• It can occur on all the continents except Antarctica.
• It is more prevalent in the USA.
Waterspout: (9:39 AM)
• It is a whirling column of air and water mist.
• Formed by tornadoes over the water surface.
Jet streams: (9:42 AM)
• WMO defines ‘jet streams’ as strong narrow current concentrated along a quasi-
horizontal axis in the upper troposphere or lower stratosphere, characterized by
strong vertical and lateral wind shear featuring one or more velocity maxima.
Characteristics of jet streams: (9:57 AM)
• They are thousands of kilometers in length.
• They are hundreds of kilometers in width.
• Normally blows from west to east.
• Winds are faster during winter.
• The entire system follows the sun changing its position with the season.
• It follows a zig-zag path in the form of Rossby Waves.
Formation of jet streams: (10:08 AM)
• The temperature difference between two regions results in a difference in pressure
gradient with altitude above different air masses which results in the generation of
strong winds.
• For example, between the polar and tropical regions.
• Or between the maritime or continental regions.
• Larger the temperature difference, the stronger the winds.
Types of Jet Streams: (10:19 AM)
Polar Jet Stream or Polar-front jet stream:
• 1. It is formed where tropical and polar air interacts, i.e. between the Ferrel Cell and
Polar Cell.
• 2. Direction is west to east.
• 3. It is irregular and discontinuous.
Sub-tropical Westerly Jet Stream:
• 1. It is associated with a temperature gradient at the poleward limit of the Headly
Cell.
• 2. Direction is west to east.
• 3. It is more consistent.
Tropical Easterly Jet Stream:
 • 1. It forms over India and Africa in summer, due to the intense heating of the
Tibetan plateau and the Thar Desert.
• 2. Direction is east to west.
• 3. It is associated with Indian Monsoon.
Local Jet Streams:
• 1. They are formed due to local thermal and pressure conditions.
• 2. For example, Somali Jet Stream.
Polar Night Jet Steam:
• 1. Formed above the troposphere, over the polar regions.
• 2. Formed during winters.
• 3. Direction is west to east.
• 4. It is associated with the formation of the Ozone hole.
Significance of Jet Streams: (10:30 AM):
• Jet steams help in creating cyclonic and anticyclonic circulations with low pressure
and high-pressure cells along the surface.
• Jet streams change the weather conditions by controlling or encouraging
precipitation.
• It helps in the transport of pollutants, dust particles, and ozone-depleting
substances into the upper troposphere.
• Jet streams are used in navigation by aircraft.
• Jet streams intensify the temperate cyclones and also helps in the formation in
some regions.
• The monsoon of South Asia is controlled or affected by Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet
Streams and Tropical Easterly Jet Streams.
Air mass: (10:59 AM)
• Air mass is an extensive portion of the atmosphere whose physical properties such
as temperature, moisture, lapse rate, pressure, etc. are homogeneous horizontally
and vertically for 100s of kilometers.
Characteristics of air mass: (11:13 AM)
• Uniform horizontal temperature.
• A very gradual change in vertical temperature.
• Uniform moisture content.
• They are formed over a homogenous source area, covering a large surface.
• For example, deserts, and oceanic surfaces.
• Light divergent winds along with high-pressure belts and anticyclonic conditions
leading to stability are helpful for the formation of air masses.
Classification of air mass: (11:16 AM)

Source Temperature Pressure Latitude

Arctic-c
Antarctica-c
Continental (C) Warm Stable
Polar- m and c
Maritime (m) Cold Unstable
Tropical - m and c
Equatorial- m
Significance of air masses: (11:21 AM)
• Maritime air masses bring more moisture towards continental regions and increase
their humidity.
 • Warm and cold air masses moving in different directions change the temperature of
destination regions.
• Air masses help in the distribution of heat across the globe from tropical to polar
regions.
• Dry air mass along the subtropical regions helps in maintaining aridity for a longer
duration.
• Cold air mass from Siberia affects the surrounding regions for a longer distance,
causing cold conditions.
• The interaction of warm and cold air mass in temperate regions leads to fronts and
temperate cyclones.
• Maritime tropical air mass supports the development of tropical cyclones.
• The maritime air mass of the Indian Ocean plays an important role in the Indian
monsoon.
Front: (11:49 AM)
• A narrow zone of transition dividing two air masses of differing temperature and
humidity characteristics.
• Fronts are usually formed in mid-latitude regions.
• Frontogenisis:
• Frontogenisis is the process of the formation of fronts.
• Frontolysis:
• Frontolysis is the process of the decay of fronts.
Warm front:
• It is the boundary between warm and cold air masses, where the warm air mass is
advancing and overriding the cold air mass.
• The gradient of the front is gradual due to the slow ascent of warm air resulting in
nimbostratus clouds and steady rainfall over a larger area.
Cold front:
• It is the boundary between warm and cold air mass, where the cold air mass is
advancing and undercutting the warm air mass.
• It results in a steeper gradient along the front leading to the rapid ascent of warm
air and the formation of cumulonimbus clouds causing heavy rainfall over smaller
regions.
Stationary front:
• When two air masses are unable to push each other and the surface position of a
front does not change, it results in a stationary front.
• When a stationary front is disturbed, it results in the formation of a warm or cold
front.
The topic for the next class: Temperate cyclones.
Revision: (9:12 AM)
• Jet Streams (formed due to temperature contrast, pressure differences are
created).
• Types of jet streams.
• Air mass (huge mass of air, similar conditions of temperature, pressure, and
humidity).
• Significance of air masses, formation of temperate cyclones, etc.
• Fronts: zone of the meeting of air masses.
Types of fronts: (9:20 AM)
• Warm fronts.
• Cold fronts.
• Stationary fronts.
• Occluded fronts.
Occluded Fronts:
• It is the later stage of front formation where the air in the warm sector is no longer
at the ground surface, due to the meeting of the cold front with the warm front.
• It is a compound zone with both warm and cold fronts characteristics.
Temperate Cyclone:
• The entire process of formation and dissipation of occluded fronts.
Formation of Temperate Cyclones: (9:49 AM)
• Stages of development of Temperate Cyclones:
• Convergence of Two Air Masses with different characteristics: Air masses move
parallel to each other and a stationary front is formed.
• Warm and Cold air masses penetrate into territories of each other forming a wave-
like front.
• With warm and cold fronts starting to move towards each other, the warm sector is
wedged between the cold sectors.
• The warm sector is narrowed in extent due to the advance of the cold front.
• The occlusion starts with warm air rising completely above the cold air, and the
cold front completely overtaking the warm front.
• The warm sector completely disappears, the occluded front is eliminated and the
cyclone dies out.
• Temperate Cyclones are also called Mid-latitude cyclones or Extra-tropical cyclones
or Wave cyclones.
• They are more prominent in the regions between 35 to 65 degrees N/S.
Role of Jet Streams in Temperate Cyclones: (10:06 AM)
• Jet streams being quasi-horizontal in nature, result in upper divergence in some
locations and upper divergence allows surface convergence which helps in bringing
together the warm and cold air masses and the subsequent formation of fronts.
• A tropical cyclone is a low-pressure, high-velocity wind system, originating within
the tropics, over the oceans.
• They have different names:
 • Indian Ocean: Cyclones
• Atlantic Ocean: Hurricanes
• South China Sea: Typhoons,
• Philippines: Bagui,
• Japan: Taifu
• Australia: Willy Willy.
Conditions for the Tropical Cyclones: (10:29 AM)
• Temperature above 27 degrees celsius. To ensure sufficient evaporation.
• Depth of warm water, i.e. 27 degrees temperature should extend up to 60-70 meters
depth.
• Humidity: High humidity of at least 50-60%.
• Coriolis Force causing deflection of winds. Therefore cyclones are developed only
between 5-25 degrees North and South.
• Minimum vertical wind shear, so that humid and warm air is not swept away.
• Pre-existing low-pressure conditions, which get intensified to form cyclones.
• Divergence in the upper troposphere causes convergence near the surface.
Formation of cyclones: (11:07 AM)
• A strong convection results in a build-up of huge cumulonimbus clouds.
• The release of latent heat provides more energy to the system supporting further
strong convection.
• When the winds start to descend along the sides, the entire system is stabilized.
• The lateral winds near the surface start to rotate around the low-pressure center
due to Coriolis Force.
• After some time, some of the dense air rising near the center starts to descend
resulting in the formation of the eye.
• At this stage, a cyclone has attained maturity, and it moves from east to west.
• When a cyclone reaches land, its source of heat is cut-off and it starts to dissipate.
Structure of Cyclones: (11:41 AM)
Eye:
• It is the center of the storm, extending 5 to 50 km in diameter.
• The conditions are the clear sky, calm/lowest pressure, and highest temperatures.
• The conditions are clear due to descending air, and lateral winds not reaching the
center, because of Coriolis Force.
Eye Wall:
• A wall of thick cumulonimbus clouds 10 to 20 km in width.
• It has the strongest winds in the cyclones.
• Thunderstorms occur in this region due to intense convection and precipitation.
Spiral Bands:
• Also called rain bands or feeder bands.
• It extends for 100s of kilometers and leads to a galaxy-like appearance.
Annular Zone:
• A zone of suppressed cloudiness, high temperature, and low humidity.
Outer convective bands:
• At the edge of the main cloud mass with instability and convection.
The naming of cyclones:
• In 2004, eight countries in the Indian Ocean agreed to have a common naming
system for cyclones.
 • Each of the countries arranged in alphabetical order submitted a set of eight names
which are maintained in sequential order by the Regional Specialized
Meteorological Center of the World Meteorological Organization located in New
Delhi.
• The names in the earlier matrix expired in 2020, and a new matrix of names
suggested by 13 countries was agreed upon in September 2019.
• The suggested names should be easy to pronounce and shall be neutral politically,
religiously, culturally, and with respect to gender.
Recurvature of Cyclone: (12:03 PM)
• When the air currents in the local atmosphere push the cold air from the poles
towards the equator and interfere with cyclone formation the cyclone which is
about to dissipate gets a fresh supply of winds and deflects right or eastward under
the influence of westerlies.
• This phenomenon is called as recurvature of cyclones.
• The recurvature is very difficult to predict.
• For example Cyclone Ockhi.
The topic for the next class: Climatic Regions

Revision: (9:10 AM)

• Occluded fronts,
• Temperate cyclones,
• Tropical cyclones,
• Conditions,
• Recurvature, etc.
Polar Vortex (9:30 AM)
• It is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding the earth’s poles.
• The term vortex refers to the counterclockwise flow of air which keeps the cold
polar air locked inside.
• The Polar winter night Jet Streams keep this region covered with strong winds.
• Occasionally, when the vortex weakens due to the weakening of Jet Streams, the
vortex expands and sends cold air southwards along with Jet Streams.
• This brings down the temperature in southern regions to colder levels of below zero
degrees celsius.
World Climatic Regions: (9:40 AM)
• The world is divided into several climatic zones or regions, each with its own
characteristics, temperature, precipitation, soil type, vegetation, and human
activities.
Hot and Wet Equatorial Climate:
• The high temperature throughout the year.
• An average of 28 degrees is observed.
 • The diurnal range of temperature is more than the annual range of temperature.
• Therefore, there are no characteristic seasons.
• Precipitation of above 250 cm per annum through convectional rainfall.
• Relative humidity always remains high because of high evaporation and high
moisture content.
• Vegetation is evergreen type, with a layered arrangement of trees, and high
biodiversity.
• High precipitation causes leaching making the soil fragile.
• Regions of hot and wet climate:
• Amazon basin,
• Parts of Columbia, Ecuador, Congo Basin, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and
Papua New Guinea.
Monsoon Type Climate:
• The hot zone, eastern monsoon.
• It experiences a seasonal reversal of winds and precipitation.
• Precipitation is concentrated for a few months during the Monsoon period.
• One or more months of the specific dry season.
• Vegetation is deciduous, i.e. sheds leaves during winters.
• Regions of monsoon type-
• South Asia,
• Myanmar,
• Indo-China,
• Eastern Africa,
• Northern Australia.
• In some regions within monsoon type, onshore trade winds cause precipitation
throughout the year.
• These regions are called as Tropical Marine climates.
• Examples are Central America, South-East Brazil, and North-East Australia.
Sudan Type Climate (Hot Zone Continental): (10:59 AM)
• These are the grasslands within tropical regions.
• They receive lesser precipitation than eastern margins.
• With average annual precipitation between 50-70 cm.
• Rainfalls occur in summers due to convection currents.
• Winter is a definite dry season.
• The dry season of Savanna is longer than the dry season of monsoon type.
• The vegetation is a dominant tall grass with scattered drought-resistant trees.
• Fire is the liming factor that checks the spread of vegetation.
• Regions-
• Savanna of Africa, both North, and South of the equator.
• South America: Llanos and Campos.
Hot deserts: (11:11 AM)
• Hot deserts are formed by three important conditions:
• Subtropical High-Pressure Belts.
• Off-shore trade winds.
• Cold Ocean Currents.
• Hot deserts are located along the western margins of the continents.
• Precipitation is very low, i.e. less than 25 cm per year.
• High diurnal range of temperature than the annual range.
 • Vegetation: Xerophytic vegetation is present.
• Example: Sahara, Atacama desert, Thar, Mohave, etc.
China Type Climate (Warm Temperate Eastern Margin): (11:15 AM)
• Summers are hot, winters are cold, with precipitation throughout the year, but
more concentration in summers.
• In summer, they are affected by tropical cyclones and trade winds.
• In winters, they are affected by temperate cyclones and off-shore westerlies.
• Vegetation is dense and luxurious and a mixture of deciduous and evergreen trees.
• Regions-
• East China,
• South-East USA,
• South-East Brazil,
• South-East Africa,
• South-East Australia.
Steppe Type of Climate (Warm Temperate Continental): (11:22 AM)
• Precipitation is higher than in tropical grasslands under the influence of temperate
cyclones.
• Vegetation is short grass.
• Soil is very fertile.
• Rainfall is moderate throughout the year.
• In summer rain is due to convection, in winters, it is due to temperate cyclones.
• They are known for large-scale wheat cultivation and animal rearing.
• Regions (example)-
• Steppes,
• Prairies,
• Pampas,
• Velds
Mediterranean Type of Climate (Warm Temperate Western Margin): 11:29 AM
• In summer, ITCZ shifts northward bringing offshore trade winds, with no
precipitation.
• In winters, ITCZ shifted southwards bringing onshore westerlies and causing good
rainfall.
• In winters, they are also under the influence of temperate cyclones.
• It is known for its characteristic season of dry summer and wet winter.
• Summers are not very hot.
• Vegetation is drought resistant, deep-rooted and short bushes.
• For example, olive, grapes, oranges, and other citrus fruits.
• The vegetation is also called Chaparral type vegetation.
• Regions-
• Mediterranean region,
• California,
• Central Chile,
• South West Africa,
• South West and Southern Australia.
Laurentian Type Climate (Cold Temperate Eastern Margin) 11;42 AM
• Temperature ranges between 20 degrees in summer and below zero degrees in
winter.
• Rainfall throughout the year.
 • And is affected by the temperate cyclones in winters.
• Vegetation is deciduous till 50 degrees north, and coniferous above that.
• Regions-
• Eastern Canada,
• North East USA,
• Northern China,
• Koreas,
• Japan,
• South East Argentina.
Siberian Type of Climate (Cool Temperate Continental) (11:46 AM)
• It is the only type of climate exclusively present in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Summers are hot, and winters are extremely cold and dry, resulting in anticyclonic
circulation.
• Vegetation is coniferous and low in biodiversity.
• Regions-
• Siberia,
• European Russia,
• Poland,
• Scandinavia,
• Canada
British Type (Cool Temperate Western Margin) 11:55 AM
• They are under the influence of warm ocean currents, which keep their port ice-
free, even during winters.
• They are under the influence of onshore westerlies throughout the year.
• Rainfall is throughout the year and moderate.
• They are known for mild winter and cool summer.
• Vegetation: Deciduous and Coniferous
• Regions-
• The United Kingdom,
• Western Canada,
• Southern Chile,
• Tasmania,
• New Zealand.
Polar Type Climate (12:02 PM).
• Covered with ice throughout the year.
• The soil layer becomes permanently frozen, called permafrost.
• This is also called as Tundra Type of Climate.
• The region is Cryosphere.
• During summer, when the snow melts, vegetation grows as stunted, sedges,
mosses, and lichens.
• Region-
• Beyond Arctic and Antarctic Circle.
The topic for the next class: Oceanography
Oceanography: (9:11 AM)
• Ocean bottom topography
• Ocean temperature
• Salinity
• Oceanic deposits
• Coral reefs
• Oceanic currents and circulation
• El Nino and related phenomena
• Tide
Distribution of Earth’s Water (9:21 AM)
• Earth’s water: (Freshwater: 3% / Saline (oceans) 97%)
• Freshwater: Other 0.9%, Groundwater 30.1%, Icecaps and Glaciers (68.7%).
• Surface water: Rivers 2%, Swamps 11%, Lakes 87%.
Ocean Bottom Topography: (9:45 AM)
Continental Shelf:
• It is the submerged shallow portion of the shallow crust.
• With depth between 150 to 200 meters.
• The width of the continental shelf is dependent on the slope of the adjacent land.
• It is wider along the coastal plains and narrow along the mountainous coast.
• It is rich in sunlight and oxygen and favors the growth of planktons.
• Therefore continental shelf is a region of rich biodiversity.
Continental Slope: (9:51 AM)
• It is the boundary between the continents and oceans.
• It is much steeper than the continental shelf.
• It forms the outer edge of continents.
Continental Rise:
• It is the base of the continental slope, with very less gradient and continuous into
the oceanic crust.
Submarine Canyon:
• The canyons formed along with the continental shelves and slopes because of
turbidity currents of rivers entering the oceans.
Abyssal Plain:
• They are also called oceanic basins.
• These are tectonically inactive ocean floors with a relatively smooth surface made
up of oceanic sediments.
• They extend up to the depth of 3000 to 6000 meters.
• For example, the Indian Ocean.
Seamount:
• These are isolated volcanic mountains along the oceanic floor formed due to
volcanic activity along with hotspots.
Guyot:
 • Seamounts are sharply pointed, guyots are flat-topped hills with summits below
the water level
• These are the regions with a rich life.
Island Arc and Archipelago:
• An island is a seamount that has emerged above the water's surface.
• Mid-oceanic Ridges:
• Formed due to divergence of oceanic plates.
Trenches:
• These are the deepest parts of oceans along the regions of subduction.
Temperature of the Oceans: (10:14 AM)
Factors affecting the temperature of the ocean:
• Latitude or insolation:
• Along the lower latitudes, higher insolation, result in higher temperatures, along
higher latitudes, lower insolation results in lower temperatures.
• Winds:
• Planetary winds help in the distribution of temperature across the ocean.
• In regions where Westerlies are more active, the temperature is higher than in the
regions of polar winds.
• In the regions of trade winds, the western margin of oceans experiences higher
temperatures than easter margins.
• Ocean Currents:
• Warm ocean currents increase the temperature, and cold ocean currents decrease.
• Ocean currents help in heat distribution between tropical and polar regions.
• Distribution of landmass:
• Seas that are completely surrounded by land will have higher temperatures due to
the continental effect.
• Examples, are the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea.
• The oceans of the Northern Hemisphere experience a higher range of temperatures
than the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere.
Vertical Distribution of Ocean Temperature: (10:54 AM)
Epilimnion:
• 1. It extends upto 200 meters of depth.
• 2. Average temperature is 20-25 degrees celsius.
• 3. It is the zone of constant sunlight and mixing due to winds.
• 4. It is the zone of uniform temperature.
• 5. It is also called as the zone of sunlight, where most of the life exists.
Metalimnion/Thermocline:
• 1. The temperature decrease with depth in this zone.
• 2. It is also called as the twilight zone with very faint light.
Hypolimnion:
• 1. It is a zone of a uniform temperature of nearly 4 degrees celsius.
• 2. It is also called as the dark zone, where the light it totally absent.
Horizontal Distribution of Temperature: (11:13 AM)
• The surface water temperatures are between 20-25 degrees celsius in the tropical
regions and decrease gradually towards the poles.
• The distinctive three layers are visible along the tropical regions.
• But along the polar regions, there will be a single uniform layer of cold
temperatures.
Salinity of Oceans: (11:18 AM)
• Salinity is the number of grams of dissolved salts in thousand grams of seawater.
• Measured in ppt (parts per thousand)
• The average salinity of the earth’s ocean is equal to 35 parts per thousand.
Different sources of salinity:
Increasing salinity:
• 1. Sediments brought by the rivers from continents.
• 2. Underwater volcanic eruptions along the oceanic floor.
• 3. Marine life.
• 4. Evaporation.
Decreasing salinity:
• 1. River water.
• 2. Melting of ice.
• 3. Rainfall.
• 4. Precipitation of salt along the oceanic floor.
Major Dissolved Salts in Sea Water (gm of Salt per kg of Water)
Chlorine 18.97
Sodium 10.47
Sulphate 2.65
Magnesium 1.28
Calcium 0.41
Potassium 0.38
Factors affecting salinity: (11:39 AM)
• 1. Temperature:
• Higher the temperature, higher the evaporation, and higher the salinity.
• The regions of subtropical waters such as the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, etc.
• 2. Rivers:
• Rivers add more fresh water and cause a decrease in salinity.
• For example, low salinity along the deltas of Gangas, Amazon, etc., Bay of Bengal
with lower salinity than Arabian Sea.
• 3. Winds:
• Higher the wind speed, higher the evaporation rate, and higher the salinity.
• 4. Precipitation:
• Rainfall brings more freshwater and decreases salinity.
• For example, equatorial regions with higher precipitation experience lower salinity
than subtropical regions.
• 5. Ocean Currents:
• Ocean currents help in the distribution of salinity.
• 6. Ice and snow:
• Increase in ice formation increases salinity, and the melting of ice decreases
salinity.
Vertical distribution of salinity: (11:50 AM)
• Along Polar regions salinity is low near to the surface, due to low temperature, and
then increase with depth.
 • Along Subtropical regions, a high evaporation rate results in higher salinity near to
the surface, and decreases shapely and becomes uniform after a certain depth.
• Along equatorial regions, high precipitation results in low salinity near the surface
and it increases with depth, and then decreases to become uniform.
• Subtropical > Equatorial > Polar regions (salinity)
Some examples of seas with above normal salinity: (12:02 PM)
• Van lake,
• Dead sea,
• Great Salt lake,
Higher salinity (seas):
• Mediterranean sea
• The Red Sea,
• The Persian Gulf,
Lower salinity (seas):
• Baltic Sea.
• Arctic Sea
• The Bering Sea.
Topic for the next class: Ocean deposits: Ocean deposits, ocean currents

Oceanic Deposits: (9:13 AM)

• Types of oceanic deposits:
Biogenous
Lithogenous
(Organic Hydgrogenous Cosmogenous
(Terrigenous)
deposits)
Example:
Corals,
Ooze (shelly
skeletal
Salts,
remains of
Polymetallic
the
Silt, Nodules, Meteorites,
microscopic
mud Polymetallic etc.
marine
Sulphides,
organism).
Red clay
calcareous
ooze,
siliceous
ooze
Coral Reefs (9:29 AM)
• Coral Reefs are masses of limestone and dolomite accumulated by lime secreting
organisms called coral polyps.
 • They are developed due to the symbiotic relationship between the coral polyp and
algae zooxanthellae.
• Coral reefs provide habitat to nearly 31 phyla of animals leading to rich biodiversity.
• Therefore, they are also called ‘rainforests of oceans’.
Conditions for coral reefs: (9:43 AM)
• A temperature of around 20 degrees celsius is needed.
• Latitude: found between 30 degrees North and South.
• Depth: Around 200-250 feet.
• Platform: Continental shelf.
• Salinity should be average.
• Corals do not grow in presence of sediments, e.g. near the mouth of deltaic rivers.
Types of coral reefs: (9:54 AM)
• Fringing reef: directly attached to a shore or borders it with an intervening shallow
channel or lagoon. E.g. Greater Caribbean region.
• A narrow coral platform lying close to the coast is discontinuous.
• For example, the Western Coast of India
• Barrier reef: is separated from the mainland or island shores by a deep channel or
lagoon. E.g. Great Barrier Reef.
• A wide coral platform is located far from the coast and separated by a lagoon.
• Atoll reef: more or less circular or continuous barrier reefs extends all the way
around a lagoon without a central island. E.g. The Pacific Ocean.
• A circular coral reef developed around a seamount or Guyot or an island, e.g.
islands of the Pacific Ocean and Lakshadweep.
Coral Reef Regions: (10:05 AM)
• Indian Ocean:
• Western Indian Ocean, Northern Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, Red Sea.
• Atlantic Ocean:
• The Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Western Atlantic.
• Pacific Ocean:
• Coral Triangle, i.e. the region of South-East Asia and Australia.
• The islands of the Pacific Ocean
Coral Bleaching: (10:08 AM)
• Corals receive their coloration from the algae living in a symbiotic relationship.
• Coral bleaching refers to the loss of color of corals due to stress-induced expulsion
of symbiotic algae.
• The reasons behind coral bleaching are
• 1. Change in water temperature.
• 2. Change in salinity.
• 3. Increase sedimentation.
• 4. Increased pollutants.
• 5. Ocean acidification.
• 6. El Nino.
• 7. Increased number of cyclones and storms.
• 8. Dredging and trawling.
Ocean Currents: (10:51 AM)
• It is the general movement of the ocean's surface water in a definite direction over
long distances.
• There are two types of ocean currents:
 • 1. Warm Current moving from lower latitude to higher latitudes.
• 2. Cold Currents: moving from higher latitudes to lower latitudes.
Factors influencing ocean currents:
• 1. Winds:
• The steady blowing of winds drags the surface water in its direction and brings
about the surface flow steadily setting water currents in motion.
• 2. Variations in Temperature, salinity, and density:
• Causes water to move in specific directions.
• 3. Shape of the coast:
• It will modify the direction of ocean currents.
• 4. Coriolis Force:
• It causes ocean currents to deflect right in Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
Southern Hemisphere.
Different Ocean currents of the World: (11:12 AM)
• Currents of the Atlantic Ocean:
• North Equatorial Currents and South Equatorial Currents (driven by trade winds).
• Counter Equatorial Current:
• Moving from West to East along the equator.
• Antilles Current:
• The South-equatorial current is bifurcated near Brazil and its northern branch joins
the North-equatorial current.
• The combined water flows towards the Caribbean Islands.
• Some part of this current flows along the eastern side of the Caribbean Island as
Antilles current, the rest of the water flows towards the west, and enters the Gulf of
Mexico.
• Florida Current:
• The current coming out of the Gulf merges with Antilles Current and flows along the
coast of Florida as Florida Current.
• Gulf Stream:
• Along the eastern coast of the USA flows the Gulf Stream.
• Near the New Foundland Island, it takes the right direction.
• North Atlantic Drift:
• Under the influence of westerlies and the east coast, the Gulf Stream turns right
and crosses North Atlantic Ocean as North Atlantic Drift.
• Norwegian Current:
• North Atlantic Drift reaching the eastern side gets bifurcated into the Northern
Norwegian Current or Irminger Current along the coast of the UK or Norway.
• And the southern branch moves towards the equator as Cold Canary current.
• Canary Current joins the North Equatorial Current completing the circulation.
• In the Northern Atlantic Ocean, continuous circulation of water in clockwise
direction results in the slow movement of stagnant waters within.
• They are called Gyre.
• Within this gyre, a type of seaweed grows, in large quantity, called Sargasso,
therefore the sea is called the Sargasso Sea.
• Labrador Current:
• Cold Current flowing between Greenland and Canada, merging with Gulf Stream.
• East Greenland Current:
• Flowing between Greenland and Iceland, merging with North Atlantic Drift.
 • South Atlantic Ocean Current:
• Brazilian Current:
• The southern branch of the Equatorial current flows along the coast of Brazil as the
warm Brazilian Current.
• South Atlantic Current:
• Brazilian current is deflected towards the left and flows as South Atlantic Current.
• West Wind Drift:
• The absence of landmass and strong westerlies causes a continuous flow of water
without any obstruction at mid-latitudes from west to east, in the southern
hemisphere, surrounding Antarctica as Cold West-Wind Drift.
• The South Atlantic Current merges with West Wind drift.
• Benguela Current:
• Near the Cape of Good Hope, the South Atlantic Current is diverted towards North
as Cold Benguela Current which joins South Equatorial Current.
• Cold Falkland Current:
• It flows near the South East Coast of South America and merges with Brazilian
Current.
Currents of Pacific Ocean: (11:51 AM)
• 1. North Equatorial Current
• 2. South Equatorial Current
• 3. Counter Equatorial Current
• 4. Kuroshio Current reaches Japan, turns right, and crosses the North Pacific Ocean
from West to East.
• 5. North Pacific Drift also called North Pacific Current.
• 6. Warm Alaska Current
• 7. Cold Californian Current.
East Australian Current: (11:57 AM)
• Humboldt Current (Peruvian Current): when the South Pacific current turns
northward.
• Oyashio/Okhotsk current near Sakhalin Island.
• Oyashio current joins Okhostsk current and becomes North Pacific Drift.
Currents of South Indian Ocean: (12:03 PM)
• It has South Equatorial Current, North Equatorial Current, and counter Equatorial
current.
• Mozambique Current: Flowing between Madagascar and Mozambique.
• The combined current is called Aghulas Current (beyond Madagascar).
• Agulhas Current merges with West Wind Drift, and a part of it turns north, as West
Australian Current, and joins South Equatorial Current.
The topic for the next class: Currents of North Indian Ocean, etc
Currents of Northern Indian Ocean: (9:16 AM)
• Winters:
• North Equatorial Current flows westwards above the equator.
• Equatorial counter-current flows between North Equatorial current and South
equatorial current.
• The North-East monsoon drives the water of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea
to circulate in an anticlockwise direction called as North-East Monsoon Drift.
• Summers:
• The entire water of the Northern Indian Ocean comes under the influence of the
South-West monsoon, producing a clockwise flow of South-West Monsoon Drift.
• During this time there are no North Equatorial currents and Counter Equatorial
currents.
Significance of Ocean Currents: (9:33 AM)
• Cold ocean currents along the west coasts in subtropical regions suppress
precipitation leading to the formation of deserts along the western margin of
continents.
• For example, the Atacama Desert with cold Peru current, and the Sahara Desert
with cold Canary current.
• Within the tropical regions, the eastern part of the oceans experiences lower
temperatures than the western part due to cold water upwellings.
• The western parts of oceans with warm temperatures favor the conditions for the
formation of tropical cyclones.
• The merging of warm and cold ocean currents leads to ideal conditions for the
development of fish, resulting in rich fishing banks. For example, the merging of
Gulf Stream with Labrador Current near Newfoundland Island has resulted in Grand
Banks and Georges Bank.
• The merging of warm and cold ocean currents results in fog formation, which may
obstruct ocean navigation.
• In the eastern part of the oceans, temperate regions are under the influence of
warm ocean currents.
• This results in mild winters and ice-free coasts along with the western parts of the
continents in the temperate regions. For example, North-Atlantic Drift along with
the UK.
• The zones of upwelling are rich in plankton growth resulting in large fishing banks,
for example, Peru-Chile Coast.
• Ocean currents are also used in navigation.
• Ocean currents help in the global distribution of temperature and salinity.
Upwelling and Downwelling: (10:07 AM)
• Upwelling:
• The offshore winds push surface waters away and cause cold water from the
bottom region to rise up to the surface.
• This brings cold and nutrient-rich waters up, which helps in the growth of fish.
 • Downwelling:
• The onshore winds pile up the water near to coast causing the sinking of water
below the surface layer.
• Upwelling is more active in the regions of cold currents aided by offshore winds,
and downwelling is more active in the regions where warm and cold currents meet.
Thermohaline Circulation (10:16 AM)
• The deep ocean currents are driven by differences in water density which are
controlled by the temperature and salinity, which is called as thermohaline
circulation.
• The circulation begins in near-polar regions of downwelling, in this underwater
current moves in a single and continuous belt across different oceans.
• They are also connected to surface water currents in the regions of upwelling.
• They are also called as Great Ocean Conveyor Belts.
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) 10:31 AM
• It is a part of the thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic Ocean.
• The recent AR-6 of IPCC talks about the weakening of AMOC due to global warming.
• The weakening of AMOC will cause the Western European countries to experience
harsh winters and frozen ports.
• The western part of oceans in tropical regions experience a rise in sea levels,
resulting in the submergence of coastal regions.
• The warm waters accumulating near tropical regions may result in an increased
occurrence of cyclones.
• The weakening of AMOC will also disturb the marine ecosystem due to variations in
temperature and salinity conditions.
Water mass: (10:39 AM)
• It is a body of water with uniform characteristics of temperature and salinity.
• There are three types of water masses: surface, intermediate and deep water mass.
• Water masses help in the generation and maintenance of thermohaline circulation.
• The movement of water mass helps in the distribution of temperature, salinity, and
oxygen.
• It also helps in the generation of upwelling and downwelling.
• The uniformity of conditions supports plankton growth and the growth of coral
reefs.
El Nino and related concepts: (11:07 AM)
• Walker Circulation:
• Near the South American west coast, trade winds blow offshore, and push the
surface water westward, away from the continent.
• To replace this water, cold water upwells, and the air above this cold water is
stabilized and convection is suppressed.
• The water flows westwards along the direction of southeast trade winds towards
the West-Pacific region.
• It is heated and it rises through convection and flows eastward in the upper
troposphere.
• And completes the cell.
• This causes high pressure and low temperature along the eastern Pacific Ocean,
and low pressure and high temperature in the western Pacific Ocean.
• The resulting convective cell is called as Walker Circulation.
 • In normal conditions, the eastern Pacific Coast experiences drought with the
western Pacific having good rainfall.
El Nino: (11:50 AM)
• Once in 7-8 years in October/November, the ITCZ moves too much south to the
equator, resulting in a weakening of trade winds.
• And upwelling is reduced along the eastern Pacific.
• The warm tropical surface waters earlier flowing toward the west flows back
eastward and cause a further reduction in upwelling.
• This results in warm surface waters of the coast of Central and South America,
which is called as El Nino.
• The appearance of El Nino causes air pressure to drop over the eastern Pacific and
rise over the western Pacific.
• This See-saw variation of air pressure is called as El-Nino Southern Oscillation
(ENSO).
• El Nino causes heavy precipitation along the eastern Pacific and drought conditions
along the western Pacific.
• After 1-2 years the enhanced Hadley circulation strengthens the trade winds and
increases the upwelling, bringing back normal conditions.
La Nina: (11:58 AM)
• El Nina is usually followed by La Nina.
• It is the intensified high pressure and cold temperatures along the eastern Pacific
and lowers low pressure and high temperatures along the western Pacific.
• This causes very high precipitation in India and Australia resulting in floods.
Effects of El Nino: (12:01 PM)
• Drought conditions in India and Australia.
• Heavy precipitation along with the coastal deserts of Peru and Chile.
• Warm water inhibits the growth of algae, and suppresses upwelling, devastating
the marine ecosystem.
• Killing fish along the Peru and Chile coast.
• Decomposition of fish releases Hydrogen Sulphide causing dark waters and making
it toxic.
• El Nino disturbs the global climatic circulations.
• During El Nino conditions the high-pressure conditions suppress cyclones in
northern Australia, the eastern Indian Ocean, and the Carrebian Sea.
Topics for the next class: El Nino, La Nina, continued
An overview of the previous lecture - 09.15 AM
El-Nino Modoki - 09.26 AM
• While El Nino is characterised by strong warming in the eastern Pacific ocean, El-
Nino Modoki results in warming of the central pacific ocean with cooling of eastern
and western parts.
• It creates a 2 cell Walker circulation over the tropical Pacific region with
precipitation in the central part and dry conditions in the Eastern and Western
parts.
• While El Nino results in diminished hurricanes in the Caribbean sea, El Nino Modoki
results in increased incidents.
• During this time, cyclones occur more in the Arabian sea than in the Bay of Bengal.
Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO) - 09.38 AM
• Unlike ENSO which is stationary, MJO is an eastward moving disturbance of clouds,
rainfall, winds and pressure that traverses the planet in the tropics and returns to
its initial starting point in 30 to 60 days on average.
• MJO has two parts - The convective part with enhanced rainfall and the subsiding
part with suppressed rainfall.
• MJO can modulate the timing and strength of monsoon and tropical cyclones.
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) - 09.56 AM
• The difference in sea surface temperatures between the western Arabian Sea and
eastern Indonesia of the Indian ocean is called as Indian Ocean Dipole.
• Positive IOD -
• Warm sea surface along the western part in relation to the east.
• Less rainfall in Indonesia and Australia.
• Good for Indian Monsoon.
• Reduced the impact of El Nino on India.
• Negative IOD -
• Warm sea surface along the Eastern part and west.
• More rainfall in Indonesia and Australia.
• Bad for Indian Monsoon.
• Increases the effect of El Nino on India.
Tides - 10.18 AM
• The regular rise and fall of water level in the world's ocean resulting from
gravitational attraction by the moon and the sun is called tides.
• The combined gravitational pull of the sun and moon pull the oceanic water into a
bulge.
• The centrifugal force of Earth's revolution pulls another bulge in opposite direction.
• The bulges in one direction create low water in another.
• As the Earth rotates, the position of high and low waters changes across the
surface.
• Factors affecting tides -
• The gravitational pull of the sun and moon.
 • The relative position of the Sun and Moon.
• The centrifugal force of Earth's revolution.
• Uneven distribution of water.
Types of Tides - 10.45 AM
• Spring tides - It is a very high tide which occurs during two conditions -
• 1) Conjunction and 2) Opposition
• During spring tides, the alignment of the Sun, Moon and Earth in a straight line is
called Syzygy
• Neap TIdes - The smaller high tides when the sun and moon are in the
perpendicular direction, the position is called quadrature.
Application of Tides - 10.48 AM
• Generation of Tidal energy.
• Navigation for tidal ports. Example - Kolkatta port.
• Helpful for Shipbuilding Industry.
• Natural Cleansing of coasts and deposition of waste.
• Helps in maintaining bio-diversity.
• Coastal Erosion
• Restricts delta formation
Biogeography - 11.22 AM
• It is the study of soil in its relation to vegetation.
Different Terminologies - 11.27 AM
• Soil - Loose surface material consisting of inorganic and organic matter and is the
source of water and nutrients for vegetation is called soil.
• A true soil is characterised by distinct horizons and the capability to support
plants.
• Regolith - A layer of unconsolidated material derived from weathering of the
parent rock.
• Horizon - Distinguishable layer in the soil that has certain chemicals and a distinct
colour.
• Pedon - A soil column extending down from the surface till regolith.
• Soil Profile - The vertical arrangement of horizons down to the parent rock
material.
Soil Genesis - 11.43 AM
• Parent Rock material - It emphasizes texture, colour and other characteristics of
soils. Example - Quartzite rocks resulting in sandy soils.
• Climate - It affects the soil directly by controlling weathering, percolation and
formation of horizons.
• Plant roots and burrowing animals help in loosening up soils and air circulation.
• Micro-organisms through decomposition help in nutrient recycling.
• Relief determines the thickness of soil.
• Time changes the nature of the soil. It determines the maturity of soil.
Soil Formation Processes - 11.53 AM
• Transformation - The process of change of soil constituents from one form to
another through breakdown, weathering, decay etc.
• Translocation - The movement of soil constituents from one horizon to another
within the soil profile.
• Eluviation - The downward transportation process through which the minerals are
removed from the top layer is called eluviation.
 • Illuviation - When the matter accumulates in the lower horizons.
• Leaching - The percolating water removes humus and soluble bases from the
upper horizons and deposits in lower ones. It is pronounced in humid regions.
• Lateralization - In hot and wet equatorial regions, heavy leaching removes silica
and other minerals except for aluminium and iron which accumulates at the top
surface. It leads to the formation of a hard iron crust.
• Podzolization - In temperate regions, decomposition of coniferous litter and heavy
summer precipitation create a soil solution that is strongly acidic. The formation of
acidic acids leads to the removal of aluminium, iron and other organic matter
except for silica, leaving a top acidic layer.
• Calcification - It involves the deposition of calcium carbonate in the top layer as a
result of capillary action due to higher evaporation than precipitation. It is more
active in temperate grasslands.
• Salinisation - It involves the accumulation of highly soluble magnesium and
sodium salts in the top layer. It is active in arid and semi-arid regions and also in the
region of faulty irrigation practices.
• Gleisation - In waterlogged conditions, the colour of the soil changes due to
reduction reactions.
Soil Types - 12.24 PM
• Water-rich region - Pedalfer - Laterite soils. Red and Yellow soils, Podzol soils
• Water-deficient region - Pedocal - Prairie soil, Chernozem and Chestnut soil, Desert
soil (red-desert soil),
Topics for the Next Class - India Physical Geography

Revision: (9:17 AM)

• Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
• Soil formation,
• Tides,
• Neap, and Spring Tides.
Indian Geography: (9:29 AM)
• India-Map Practice.
• Subcontinent:
• A part of a continent that exists separately, in terms of factors like Geography,
Culture, or History.
• Similarities of cultures, etc. are there among the nations of a subcontinent.
• For E.g. Indian Subcontinent, Alaska, etc.
Borders of India (land borders) with other countries:
• 1. Bangladesh. (around 4000 km)
• 2. China (around 3500 km)
• 3. Pakistan (around 3300 km).
 • 4. Nepal (1700 km)
• 5. Myanmar (1650 km)
• 6. Bhutan (700 km)
• 7. Afghanistan (100 km)
• Wakhan Corridor: By which Afghanistan shares borders with both India and China.
• Pakistan, Bangladesh: BSP
• ITBP: China border.
• SSP: Nepal Bhutan
• CRPF: Internal Security.
• CISF: Central Industrial Security Forces.
Physiography of India (10:06 AM)
• Divided into the following parts:
• 1. Mountains, and
• 2. Plateaus
• 3. Plain region: Northern plains, Coastal plains.
• 4. Islands
Mountains: (10:09 AM)
Formation of Himalayas:
• When Pangea got separated into Angaraland and Gondwana, India was part of
Gondwana along with Africa, Madagascar, Australia, Antarctica, and South America.
• India started to move towards the Eurasian plate resulting in the contraction of the
Tethys Sea.
• The ocean-continent collision caused the subduction of the oceanic plate below
the continental plate of Eurasia, and the resultant magma eruption and
compression caused the formation of the Tibetan Plateau and the mountains of
China.
• While the Indian Plate was passing over the Reunion Hotspot, magma eruption
resulted in the formation of Deccan Traps.
• When the Oceanic plate got completely subducted, the Continental crust of the
Indian plate started to collide with the continental crust of the Eurasian plate.
• The high compression caused the sediments of the Tethys Sea to be squeezed and
crushed and a series of folds were formed, called the Himalayas.
Phases in the formation of the Himalayas (10:36 AM)
• The Himalayas formed in 3 different phases:
• Phase 1: 120 to 70 million years ago. Which resulted in the formation of the Great
Himalayas.
• Phase 2: 30 to 25 million years ago, which resulted in the formation of the Middle
Himalayas.
• Phase 3: 20 to 2 million years ago, resulting in the formation of the Shivaliks.
Syntaxial Bend of Himalayas: (11:04 AM)
• It is due to the maximum push offered at both ends of the Indian Peninsula.
• During its northward drift.
• In North-West it is due to Aravalis.
• Along North-East it is due to Assam ranges.
• Both acted as two extended arms, while the central area sagged giving an arcuate
shape.
Evidence for the continued growth of the Himalayas: (11:13 AM)
• Recent adjustments in the height of the Himalayas, for example, Mount Everest.
 • Frequent earthquakes in the Himalayas.
• Rivers of Himalayas with high erosional capacity in youth stage.
• The recent drying up of lakes of the Tibetan Plateau indicates that Tibetan Plateau
is continuously rising.
Ranges in the Himalayas: (11:18 AM)
Trans-Himalayas:
• They are volcanic in nature.
• They originated before the Himalayas.
• Karakoram,
• Ladakh,
• Kailash, etc. aer the part of Trans-Himalayas.
Great Himalayas:
• Continuous as well as tall.
• The average height is 6000 meters.
Middle Himalaya (Lesser Himalayas)
• Also called Himachal.
• Pir Panjal.
• Dhaula Dhar,
• Mussoorie
• Mahabharat Range (Nepal).
Shivaliks:
• Also called Outer Himalayas.
Purvanchal:
• (Hills of East)
Fault Zones in the Himalayas:
• Indo-Tsangpo Suture Zone. (ITSZ): Indian plate got stitched with the Eurasian plate.
• Main Central Thrust (MCT): Between Great Himalayas and Middle Himalayas.
• MBT (Main Boundary Thrust): Lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks.
• Main Frontal Thrust: Between Siwaliks and Ganga Plains.
Difference between Western and Eastern Himalayas: (11:39 AM)

Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas

 • Indus to Kali
river.
• Taller in height.
• Teesta to Brahmaputra
• Rises gradually.
• Bit shorter.
• Wider
• Rise abruptly.
• Snow line (snow
• Narrow.
starts at a lower
• Higher snowline (due to latitude).
elevation).
• Rainfall is higher.
• Rainfall is lower.
• Evergreen forests.
• Coniferous
• Higher biodiversity.
forests.
• Lower
biodiversity.

Mountains and Plateaus of Peninsular Region (11:50 AM)

• The Peninsular block is a great complex of ancient rocks which had remained stable
for a very long period of time.
• It is a single rigid mass of rocks with granite and Gneiss.
• Forming its base.
• However, it is subjected to the following tectonic activities:
• Submergences of the western part of Western Ghats.
• Formation of Deccan Traps.
• Formation of Rift Valleys such as Narmada, Tapi, etc.
• The Peninsular Block extended from Gujarat in the west to Meghalaya in the east.
The topic for the next class: Difference between Western and the Eastern Ghats, Plains of
North India

Difference between Western and Eastern Ghats: (9:13 AM)

Western Ghat Eastern Ghat
From Tapi to Kanyakumari. South of Mahanadi Delta to
Taller in height. Nilgiri.
The width is narrow. Bit shorter.
Near to the coast. Wider.
Height increases to the south. Away from the coast.
Higher rainfall. Height increases to North.
Higher biodiversity. Lower rainfall.
Continuous. In Maharastra, they are called Lower biodiversity.
Sahyadri. Discontinuous.
Plains of India: (9:33 AM)
Formation of Northern Plains:
• The Northern Plains are formed by the deposition of sediments brought by rivers
from the Himalayas into the basin between the Himalayas and the Peninsular
Block.
• It extends along the entire stretch of the Himalayas for 3200 km of which the Indian
part accounts for 2400 km.
• This is the largest alluvial plain in the world.
• It is divided into Rajasthan Plain, Indus Plain, Ganga Plain, and Brahmputra Plain.
Rajasthan Plains:
• It is associated with a mythological river that later dried up.
• It is divided into the western part consisting of a desert proper called “Marusthali”,
and the eastern part which is semi-arid, located between Marusthali and Aravali,
called Rajasthan Bagar.
Punjab Plain/Indus Plains:
• Present in Punjab, Haryana in India.
• It is made up of Doabs (land between two rivers).
• Punjab is made up of 5 doabs.
Ganga Plains:
• They are the most extensive and largest.
• Extends from Delhi to Kolkata, between UP, Bihar, and West Bengal.
• The region between Ganga and Yamuna is called as Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
• To the east of Doab, the region of Western UP is called Rohilkhand Plain.
• The Central and Eastern UP area is called Awadh Plains.
Brahmaputra Plains:
• It extends from Sadiya to Dhubri.
Types of Northern Plains: (10:12 AM)
• Bhabar:
• It is the region of porous gravel and boulders deposited by rivers entering the plains
from mountains.
• In this region, small river streams disappear and start to flow underground.
• Terai:
• It is the Marshy region after Bhabar where rivers start to reappear.
• It is very fertile and used for the agriculture of rice, sugarcane, etc.
• They are waterlogged regions that are very prone to waterborne diseases.
• Khadar:
• It is an alluvial plain next to the river valley, made up of fresh alluvium which gets
replenished every year.
• Bangar:
• It is an alluvial plain away from the river valley, made up of older alluvium, and is
less fertile than Khadar.
• Dooars:
• The sediments are deposited by rivers along the foothills of the eastern Himalayas
in West Bengal and Assam.
 • These are unconsolidated sediments that are less marshy than Terai.
• It is very useful for tea cultivation or tea gardens.
Coastal Plains:
Western Coast Eastern Coast
• Kutch to Kanyakumari. • Sunderban to Kanyakumari.
• Narrow, up to 65 km. • Wider, it has 150-200 km in
• Estuaries. width.
• Discontinuous. • Deltas.
• Broken coast. • Continuous.
• Many natural ports. • Smooth coast.
• Majorly submerged. • Artificial ports.
• The Continental shelf is • Emergent.
wider. • Narrow continental shelf.
Drainage System: (11:02 AM)
Himalayan Drainage System:
• A widely accepted theory regarding the evolution of the Himalayas proposes the
existence of a single river all along the entire stretch of the Himalayas following the
direction East to West.
• This river was called the IndoBrahm or Shivalik River.
• It drained into the Gulf of Sindh.
• This earlier drainage system was disturbed by three main events:
• 1. More rising of Western Himalayas.
• 2. Upliftment of Potwar Plateau and Delhi Ridge.
• 3. Downthrusting or downfaulting of Malda Gap or Garo-Rajmahal Gap.
• This divided the entire river into Indus and its tributaries, Ganga and its tributaries,
and Brahmputra and its tributaries.
Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System: (11:26 AM)
• The Peninsular Drainage system was influenced by the following three major
events:
• 1. Submergence of the Western Flank of the Western Ghats disturbed the
symmetrical pattern of Peninsular drainage.
• 2. Upliftment of the Himalayas caused the northern slope of Vindhyas to tilt more
towards the north and resulted in the trough faulting of Narmada-Tapi Valley.
• 3. Slight tilting of the Peninsular Block from North-West to South-East direction
causing Peninsular drainage to slope towards the Bay of Bengal.
Differences between Himalayan and Peninsular Drainage systems: (11:30 AM)
Himalayan Drainage Peninsular Drainage
Perennial (fed by glaciers) Seasonal (Monsoon driven).
Longer distance. Cover shorter distances.
The river basin is larger. The river basin is smaller.
Youth Stage rivers. Mature stage rivers.
Meandering is high. Low meandering.
Deltas are formed. Both deltas and estuaries.
Antecedent rivers. Consequent rivers.
Dendritic rivers. Rectangular pattern.
• Antecedent rivers:
• Indus,
 • Sutlej,
• Ghaghra,
• Kosi,
• Brahmputra
• Consequent Rivers:
• The Godavari,
• Krishna,
• Kaveri, etc.
Drainage Pattern: (11:50 AM)
• The flow characteristics of a river are called a drainage patterns.
• 1. Dendritic Pattern:
• The river and its tributaries form a dense network appearing like veins of leaves or
branches of trees.
• It occurs in regions with loose soil which lack structural control.
• For example, Ganga and its tributaries, Indus and its tributaries.
• 2. Rectangular Pattern:
• The river takes a sharp right turn.
• It occurs in plateau regions where there is higher structural control.
• For example, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, etc.
• 3. Trellis Pattern:
• The main river flows in a rift valley and the tributaries join at 90 degrees.
• For example, Narmada and Tapi.
• 4. Radial Pattern:
• A drainage pattern in which different rivers originate and flow in different directions
from a highland or a mountain.
• For example, the Amarkantak Plateau, the origin of Narmada and Son.
• 5. Parallel Drainage:
• Where rivers run parallel to each other and enter the ocean separately.
• For example, the west-flowing rivers of Western Ghats.
The topic for the next class: Marking of major rivers, Climate of India, etc

Revision: (9:14 AM)

• Western Ghat vs. Eastern Ghat
• Drainage Patterns, radial, dendritic, etc.
• Alluvial types: Khadar, Bhabar, etc.
Map Work: (9:21 AM)
Indus River System:
• Near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet.
• Right bank tributaries of Indus:
• Shyok river is the right-bank tributary.
 • Gilgit river is a right bank tributary in the region of Gilgit Baltistan.
• Kabul river comes from Afghanistan and joins Indus in Pakistan from the right.
• Left bank tributaries of Indus:
• Jhelum originates from Jammu and Kashmir.
• Which is joined by Chenab, Ravi, and Satluj.
• Satluj joins the River Indus from the left.
Tributaries of Ganga:
• Bhagirathi and Alaknanda merge at Rudraprayag, and form Ganga.
• Right bank tributaries of Ganga:
• Yamuna River,
• Son River,
• Punpun and
• Left bank tributaries of Ganga:
• Gomti River,
• Ghaghara River,
• Gandaki River and
• Kosi River.
Tributaries of Yamuna:
• Chambal: Originates from Vindhyas, MP.
• Banas: Comes from Aravalis (joins Chambal).
• Betwa, Ken
• Sindh river.
Son river:
• It originates from Amarkantak.
• Joins Ganga as a right bank tributary.
• Hugli is a distributary of Ganga.
• Hugli is joined by Damodar (sorrow of Bengal), and the Ajay river is also a
distributary of Hugli.
Brahmputra: (10:17 AM)
• Tsangpo in Tibet.
• Once it enters the hills of Arunachal, it is called Shiyang.
• In Plains of Arunachal, it is called Dihang.
• In Assam plains, it is called Brahmputra.
• Same Brahmputra is called Jamuna in Bangladesh.
• When Jamuna merges with Ganga, it is called the Padma.
• The Padma in the lowermost delta is called Meghna.
• Right bank tributaries of Brahmputra:
• Manas, Jia Bareli is the right bank tributary of Brahmputra.
• Manas comes from Bhutan.
• Sankosh also comes from Bhutan, enters Assam, and joins Brahmputra.
• Teesta originates from Sikkim.
• Rangeet is a tributary of Teesta.
• Teesta originates from Tso Lamho.
• Left bank tributaries of Brahmputra:
• Dibang and Lohit are left bank tributaries of Brahmputra.
• Buri Dihing, which comes from Arunachal, is also a left-bank tributary.
• Dhansiri river.
• Kopili river cross Mikir Hills and joins Brahmputra.
 • Barak joins Meghna in Bangladesh.
• Barak is also called Surma in Bangladesh.
Peninsular rivers:
• Mahanadi:
• Tributaries of Mahanadi:
• Ib
• Mand
• Hasdeo
• Ong
• Jonk
• Telen
• Vamsadhara River:
• Flows between Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• Godavari:
• Also called a Dakshin Ganga.
• Trimbak Plateau in Nasik.
• Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh.
• Manjra is the right bank tributary.
• Penganga, Wardha, Wenganga are merged and named as Pranhita.
• Indravati and Sahari are also the left bank tributaries.
• Krishna:
• Comes from Mahabaleshwar.
• Tungabhadra is the left bank tributary of Krishna.
• Koyna is a tributary of Krishna and flows through Maharashtra.
• Kaveri:
• Originates from Brahmgiri Hills, from Talakaveri.
• Kabini is a right bank tributary.
• Bhawani and Amrawati, both come from Kerala.
• Harangi,
• Hemavati,
• Shimsha,
• Kaveri drains in the Bay of Bengal near Point Calimere.
West flowing rivers: (10:56 AM)
• Luni River:
• Between Aravali and Marusthali.
• Plains of Rajasthan.
• Luni is known for inland drainage.
• Originates from Aravali drains before Rann of Kutch.
• Sabarmati:
• Mahi:
• Originates from Vindhya.
• Crosses Tropic of Cancer twice.
• Drains in the Gulf of Khambat.
• Narmada and Tapi:
• Example of Trellis drainage pattern.
• Narmada originates from Amarkantak.
• Tapi originates from Betul Plateau in MP.
• Daman Ganga flows through Daman.
 • Mandovi or Mahadayi river:
• Between Karnataka and Goa, it is disputed.
• Sharavati:
• West flowing river of Karnataka.
• Famous for Jog falls.
The climate of India: (11:17 AM):
• Latitudinal Extent:
• Nearly 30-degree extent is responsible for varied climatic conditions.
• The location near the Indian Ocean:
• Moderating effect along the major part of the country. Not too harsh summer, not
too cold winters.
• Himalayas:
• The Himalayan range protects India from the Cold and dry winds of Central Asia
during winter.
• It also acts as a major factor in controlling monsoon.
• Other Topographical Features:
• The presence of the Western Ghats causes very heavy precipitation along the
western coast.
• Northern Ganga Plains:
• Due to its continentality experiences hot summers and cold winters.
• Monsoon:
• It is the most dominant factor of the Indian climate, due to which it is called as
Monsoon climate.
• Jet Streams:
• Sub-tropical Westerly and Tropical Easterly Jet Stream influence the winter and
summer weather conditions in India.
• Cyclones:
• Both tropical and temperate cyclones, directly and indirectly, impacts a large area
in India.
• El Nino, La Nina, MJO, and IOD also impact the climate of India.
Mechanism of Monsoon: (11:30 AM)
• Monsoon comes from ‘Mausam’ which means seasons.
• Monsoon is mentioned in ancient and medieval literature too.
• Classical theory:
• During summer, a large-scale version of Sea Breeze.
• During the winters, the condition is reversed.
• Role of Jet Streams (in winters):
• STWJ creates anti-cyclonic conditions during winter.
• The High Pressure created by STWJ, pushes the dry air to the oceans.
• This wind picks up moisture from the Bay of Bengal, and they cause rain in the
Coromandal Coast.
• Due to the shifting of ITCZ (ITCZ: where the trade winds meet).
• During summers, ITCZ shifts north, up to the foothills of the Himalayas.
The topic for the next class: Indian Monsoon
Revision: (9:17 AM)
• Rivers and their tributaries.
• Major rivers of the Himalayas, Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, etc.
• Peninsular rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, etc.
Mechanism of Monsoon: (9:28 AM)
• The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘Mausam’, meaning season.
Classical Theory:
• This explains the phenomenon of monsoon as large-scale land and sea breeze,
because of the reversal of temperature and pressure conditions in the Northern
Plains from Summer to Winter.
• During summer, the high temperature and low pressure attract winds from the
Arabian Sea, and during winters, low temperatures and high-pressure cause wind
to blow away from the plains towards the sea.
Modern Theory: (9:56 AM)
• Winter (November to February):
• Low temperature and high-pressure cause anti-cyclonic conditions over Northern
Plains.
• Winds blow outward from the land over which air is subsiding.
• Winds are dry and cold.
• The subtropical westerly jet streams (STWJ) are strong and well established.
• It is bifurcated into two branches over the North and South of the Tibetan Plateau.
• The Southern Branch is stronger and is located along North Ganga Plains.
• This intensifies surface anti-cyclonic circulations leading to clear and dry sky
weather.
• The winds blow from the land so sea from North-East direction.
• The North-East winds after crossing the Bay of Bengal pick up moisture and cause
precipitation along the Coromandal Coast.
• Spring (February to April):
• The weather is extremely hot and dry.
• Subtropical Westerly Jet Streams (STWJ) begin to weaken and the southern branch
eventually moves entirely to the North of the Tibetan Plateau.
• The temperature starts to rise and pressure falls.
• This condition leads to a conviction in some regions, resulting in precipitation,
called as Pre-Monsoon Showers.
• Pre-Monsoon Showers:
• Mango Showers: in Kerala and Karnataka, help in the early ripening of mangoes.
• Blossom Shower or Cherry Blossom: In Kerala and Karnataka, helps in coffee
flowering.
• Nor Westers: Odisha, West Bengal, and Assam, also called Kalbaisakhi or Bardoli
Chheerha, help in tea, jute, and rice cultivation.
• Loo: Hot and dry winds blowing along Northern Plains from West.
• Summer (May to August):
 • The complete development of low-pressure cells over the desert and northern
plains causes ITCZ to shift completely north and lie over Ganga Plains (Monsoon
Trough).
• This attracts southern trade winds towards the North of the Equator which, after
crossing the Equator, turns right under the influence of Coriolis Force, and starts to
blow as South-West Monsoon winds.
• The temperature stratification in the air does not allow upward movement of air,
preventing major storms.
• The tropical easterly jet streams, which develop over India in summer help in the
formation of disturbances in the air in addition to Monsoon Depressions in the Bay
of Bengal.
• This causes the bursting of the Monsoon, which is the sudden onset of moisture-
laden winds with violent thunder and lightning.
• These monsoon winds gradually get distributed throughout India causing Monsoon
rainfall.
• In some regions, due to local stability conditions and also due to the winds blowing
parallel to the topography, a break in monsoon occurs.
• Autumn: (September to October) 10:21 AM
• It is also called as retreating monsoon season.
• ITCZ or Equatorial Trough starts to move back gradually towards the South.
• This also brings back the maximum extent to which South-West winds blow.
• The South-West winds gradually get replaced by North-East winds.
• The Subtropical Westerly Jet Streams reappear to the south of the Tibetan Plateau
creating dry conditions.
• The high temperature with dry conditions in October along the Northern Plains is
called October Heat.
Characteristics of Monsoon: (10:26 AM)
• The onset of the Monsoon is gradual and withdrawal is more gradual.
• As the winds move from Sea to Land, the amount of precipitation gradually
decreases.
• Temporal Variation:
• That is the precipitation within the Monsoon season varies with time, within a
particular region.
• Spatial Variation:
• That is the amount of precipitation varies from one region to another.
Distribution of South West Monsoon: (10:33 AM)
• The onset of the Monsoon begins at the Kerala coast.
• The monsoon winds get divided into two branches, 1. The Arabian Sea, 2. The Bay
of Bengal.
Bay of Bengal Branch: (11:09 AM)
• It moves parallel to the Coromandal Coast causing no precipitation.
• From Northern Circar, rainfall starts to increase towards West Bengal.
• Along the Ganga Delta, the Bay of Bengal Branch is divided into East and West by
Himalayan foothills.
• The eastern Branch hits the Meghalayan Plateau perpendicularly causing very
heavy precipitation and it spreads over the rest of the North East.
• The western Branch blows across Ganga Plains.
• The precipitation decreases from East to West along Ganga Plains.
 • Precipitation increase towards the Himalayas from South to North.
Arabian Sea Branch: (11:14 AM)
• Winds hit the Western Ghats at right angles, causing very heavy precipitation along
the western side.
• Along the eastern side, the descending winds result in a rainshadow effect, creating
dry conditions in Karnataka, eastern Maharashtra, and Telangana.
• The Arabian Sea Branch advances towards Gujarat and blows parallel to the
Aravalis resulting in very less precipitation in Rajasthan.
• The Arabian Sea Branch meets the Bay of Bengal Branch near Agra.
• The combined branch causes precipitation in Western UP, Haryana, Punjab,
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh, and Jammu and Kashmir.
Western Disturbance: (11:18 AM)
• Western Disturbance is active from November to March.
• During winters Northern India experiences cold and dry conditions along with
strong Westerly Jet Streams.
• The Mediterranean region receives rainfall due to onshore westerlies and
temperate cyclones.
• The Subtropical Westerly Jet Streams along the Mediterranean region pick up the
moisture content and low-pressure disturbance and are brought to India.
• When these winds accumulate near the North-Western Himalayas, it causes
precipitation.
• The precipitation due to Western Disturbance (WD) decreases from west to east
along the Ganga plains.
Significance of Western Disturbance: (11:34 AM)
• It causes an abrupt change in temperature and snowfall along northern hills.
• It is good for winter crops of Wheat and Mustard.
• It causes Cloud Burst and Flash Floods.
• For E.g. 2010 Leh Flash Floods.
Recent changes/variations in Monsoon: (11:37 AM)
• Changes observed:
• Delay in onset,
• Delay in retreat,
• Increase in breaks,
• An increase in temporal and spatial variations,
• Decrease in average monsoon rainfall,
• Possible reasons:
• Global change in temperature and pressure due to global warming.
• Sea surface temperature variation.
• Increased impact of El Nino, IOD, etc.
• An increase in aerosol, such as black carbon, may reduce cloud formation.
Soil Types of India: (11:51 AM)
• Factors affecting soil formation:
• Parent rock material:
• Balck soil is derived from basaltic lava.
• Titaniferous magnetite makes it black in colour.
• Red soil from granitic rocks, resulting in red soil.
• Climate factors:
• Arid soil in Rajasthan due to excessive evaporation.
 • Laterite soil of Western Ghats, due to heavy precipitation.
• Organisms:
• Humus content, e.g. Madhya Pradesh is rich in humus content.
• Soils of Central India are rich in humus content, and soils of Maharashtra and
Northern Karnataka are poor in Humus content.
• Relief:
• Mountain soils are thin,
• Northern Plains are thick.
• Time factor:
• Bhangar (old alluvium) and Khadar (new alluvium).
The topic for the next class: Types of soil in India, Economic Geography of World, India

Soil Types of India: (9:18 AM)

• All Indian soils are poor in Nitrogen.
• Humus-rich soils: Black soil, mountain and forest soil, and peaty soil is also rich in
humus content.
• Iron content: Red soil and laterite soil is rich in iron content.
Red Soil: (9:29 AM)
• They are found in regions of moderate to low precipitation.
• Granite and Gneiss are the parent material of red soil.
• It is rich in iron, to some extent aluminum, and magnesium.
• Red soil is poor in nitrogen, humus, and phosphorous.
• Regions of red soil:
• Towards the eastern side of Western Ghat, i.e. Southern Karnataka, Southern
Andhra Pradesh, eastern Madhya Pradesh, parts of Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha
• And in parts of North East.
Black Soil: (9:33 AM)
• Black in colour due to titaniferous magnetite.
• Parent Rock Material: Basaltic Rocks of Deccan Traps.
• Rich in humus, poor in nitrogen and phosphorus.
• It is sticky when wet.
• And forms cracks when dry.
• Therefore it is also called as self-blowing soil.
• Very well suited for cotton cultivation.
• Regions: Majority of Maharashtra, Northern Karnataka, parts of Telangana, Western
Madhya Pradesh, and Southern Gujarat.
Laterite Soil: (9:40 AM)
• Found in the regions of very high precipitation, with some dry conditions.
• Mainly rich in iron and aluminum, potash
• Poor in silica, bases, etc. poor in humus and phosphate also.
 • It is suitable for plantation crops of Coffee, tea, rubber, cashew nuts, spices, etc.
• Regions: Western side of Western Ghats, parts of Odisha, Meghalaya, the southern
part of Aravalis.
Alluvial Soil: (9:44 AM)
• It covers the largest area in India.
• They are formed due to the deposition of sediments by rivers.
• There are no marked differences in layers.
• Poor in nitrogen and humus content.
• Regions: Northern Plains and Coastal Plains.
Arid and Desert Soils or Saline Soil: (9:47 AM)
• They are formed due to high evaporation.
• Saline salts get accumulated in the top layers.
• They are deficient in nitrogen and humus.
• The regions: Rajasthan, northern Gujarat, parts of Punjab, and Haryana (due to
faulty irrigation practice).
Mountain or Forest Soil: (9:50 AM)
• They are a thin layer of soil.
• Rich in organic content.
• Slow decomposition of organic matter makes the soil slightly acidic.
• Regions: the Himalayas, parts of Western Ghats, parts of Vindhyas and Satpuras.
Peaty Soil (9:52 AM)
• Found in the regions of submerged or waterlogged conditions.
• Rich in organic content, saline in some regions.
• It is saline in some regions due to saltwater intrusion.
• Regions: West Bengal, coastal Odisha, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Soil Erosion: (10:00 AM)
• Removal of the top layer of the soil resulting in the loss of fertility is called as ‘soil
erosion’.
• Causes of soil erosion:
• Natural:
• High winds,
• High water flow,
• Lack of vegetation,
• Higher slope,
• Anthropogenic:
• Deforestation
• Mining,
• Overgrazing,
• Faulty irrigation,
• Chemical fertilizers,
• Shifting cultivation, etc.
Stages in Soil Erosion: (10:07 AM)
• Sheet Erosion:
• Removal of the thin layer of topsoil
• Rill Erosion:
• Finger-shaped rills are developed due to the increased flow of water.
• Gully Erosion:
 • Deep gullies are developed due to heavy rainfall and remove nutrients and heavy
load of loose soil.
• For example, Chambal Badland.
• Slip Erosion:
• The entire layer of soil is washed away.
• Soil Erosion Regions of India: Should be marked on the hand-drawn map of India.
Economic Geography: (10:28 AM)
• Water Resource
• Natural Vegetation,
• Agriculture,
• Mineral and energy resources,
• Industries & Transportation,
• Human Geography
Water Resources: (10:32 AM)
• Distribution of Earth’s Water:
• Earth’s Water: (Saline/Ocean: 97%, Freshwater 3%)
• Freshwater (icecaps and glaciers 68.7%, Groundwater is 30.1%, Surface-water:
0.3%, others 0.9%.
• Surface freshwater (Lakes 87%, Swamps 11%, Rivers 2%).
Water Resources: (10:41 AM)
• Types of oceanic resources:
• Mineral resources: (Deposited and Dissolved)
• Dissolved:
• Salts
• Deposited:
• Continental Shelf: Sand, gravel, shells, mud, and placer deposits.
• Deep ocean: Polymattalic nodules, manganese nodules, etc.
Polymetallic Nodules: (10:52 AM)
• These are aggregates of minerals found on the oceanic floor widely distributed and
are rich in manganese, iron, nickel, copper, cobalt, etc.
• They are also called as Polymetallic Nodules.
• They are majorly found concentrated in the following regions:
• Clarion-Clipperton Zone, Peru Basin, Western Pacific near Cook Island, southern
Indian Ocean.
• Polymetallic Sulphides are the aggregates of metals near volcanic mountains along
with hydrothermal vents.
• They are rich in sulphur, copper, lead, zinc, etc.
Petroleum and Gas: (11:02 AM)
• They are formed due to the anaerobic decomposition of marine microorganisms
along the continental shelf such as zooplankton, algae, etc.
• Bombay High,
• Alaska,
• The Gulf of Mexico,
• The Persian Gulf,
• The North Sea,
• The Gulf of Oman, etc.
• Coal,
• Tides,
 • Wave energy: By waves that are hitting coastal regions, the energy can be
generated.
• Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC).
• Wind energy.
• Monazite Sand (rich in Thorium, can be used in nuclear plants).
• Deuterium is used in nuclear reactors.
Food resources: (11:29 AM)
• Fish
• Seafood,
• Sea Weeds.
Fresh water extraction:
• By using reverse osmosis and electrodialysis.
Issues in the extraction of Oceanic Resources: (11:32 AM)
• Distribution:
• They are widely distributed along the ocean floor making extraction difficult.
• For example, Polymetallic Nodules.
• Not uniformly distributed.
• For example, oil and gas.
• Technological hurdles.
• For example, wave energy, OTEC, Thorium, Polymetallic Nodules, etc.
• Issues related to cost.
• Cost is very high for the extraction of PMN.
• Extraction of fresh water from ocean water is very costly.
• Physical Barriers.
• Presence of volcanic mountains, ridges, trenches, very cold temperatures, high-
pressure conditions, lack of light, etc.
• Environmental Impact.
• The extraction of oceanic resources may disturb the fragile ecosystem of the ocean
bottom, which is difficult to restore.
• The risk of oil spills destroying the coastal ecosystem.
• Destruction of coral and mangrove ecosystem.
The topic for the next class: Fishing industry, India’s fishing sector, vegetation, etc

Recap of the previous class discussion. (09:12:00 AM)

Water Resources (09:20:00 AM)
• Types of oceanic Resources.
• Issues in extraction
• Fish Resources.
The followings are the Favorable conditions for the Fishing Sector (09:26:00 AM)
 • Region of abundant sunlight and oxygen which support the growth of the
phytoplankton.
• The regions of upwelling bring nutrients from the deep waters and ocean bottom.
• The shallow continental shelf and wider continental shelf.
• Mixing of warm and cold ocean currents.
• The presence of the coral reefs.
• Broken coastline resulting in the natural harbor.
• The regions where food grains and cereal are not produced or climate does not
favor good agriculture.
• Moderate Temperature helps in fish preservation.
Important Fishing Regions of the World
• North-West Atlantic Region: Due to the Mixing of the gulf stream and Labrador
current. Another reason is the wide continental shelf.
• Along the eastern coast of the USA and Canada: Grand Banks, Georges Bank, etc.
• North-East Atlantic: It extends from Norway to the Mediterranean. Due to Warm
Ocean Current mixed with cold current, wide continental shelf. Dogger Bank.
• North West Pacific region: Around Japan, Philippines, and extend till the Aleutian
Islands.
• Merging of the Kuroshio Current with Oyashio Current.
• North East Pacific: Along the Entire west coast of the USA and Mexico.
• Warm Alaska Current and cold California current.
• South-East Pacific Region: The majority along the coast of Peru and Chile. Cold
Hambolt current as well as there is cold water upwelling. This region is one of the
best regions for fishing.
Tropical regions are not famous for the fishing sectors due to following reasons:
• High diversity is not economical.
• High-temperature results in a low level of plankton growth.
• High temperatures make the high cost for the preservation of fish.
• Less investment in the fishing infrastructure (Cold storage, harbor, transportation
facility).
• Low demand due to higher dependency on agriculture.
• High vegetarian population.
Fishing Industry of India (10:01:00 AM)
• India is the second-largest fish-producing country in the world after China.
• Wide coastal zone on the western coast of India.
• Inland fishing due to a large number of rivers and lakes.
The issue with the Fishing Industry in India
• Lack of development of the infrastructure.
• Lack of cold storage facilities, and transportation facilities.
• Low investment from the public as well from the private sector.
• Unfavorable climatic conditions such as Cyclonic conditions and Monsoon season
are not suitable for fishing.
• Lack of modern technology in the fishing sector. Thus the fishermen are dependent
on the traditional methods that reduce their efficiency.
• Lack of government policy.
• Pollution in the coastal regions such as oil spills.
• Territorial issues such as we are facing with Sri Lanka as well as Pakistan and
Bangladesh.
 • It is considered a caste-based occupation that limits private participation.
Government Initiatives
Blue Revolution:
• It was initiated in the 5th and 6th Five Year Programme. It was done in two-phase one
from 1980 to 1991 and the second from 1991 to 2005.
• In the first phase, the Fishing Farming Development Agency (FFDA) was established
as the nodal agency in 1980. It was tasked with the distribution of quality fish seeds.
• FFDA started Fish Seed Development Programme.
• The first phase was able to succeed in doubling the inland fishing.
• Based on the success of the First phase we started the second phase and it targeted
both inland and marine fishing.
• Under it, the coastal states were targeted. Major targets were Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, and West Bengal.
Mission Neel Kranti
• In 2015 a new program was started named the Mission Neel Kranti. The target was a
Five Year plan through which integrated development and management of fisheries
were started.
• The program aimed for enhancing the economic prosperity of the country by
augmenting fisheries, and fish farmers, and contributing to food and nutritional
security.
• It targeted both Inlands and marine fisheries.
PM Matasya Sampada Yojana
• It was announced in 2019.
• The major target is the welfare of the fishermen. Particularly provide the social
security of the
• It aims to promote aquaculture to benefit all the fishermen with social security and
to expand the coverage to the accidental insurance.
Distribution of the Earth’s Water (10:58:00 AM)
• Saline (Marine) Water accounts for 97% of the total water on the earth. Freshwater
accounts for 3% of the total water on the Earth.
• Icecaps and Glaciers account for 68.7% of the total fresh water.
• Groundwater Account for 68.7% of the total fresh water.
Issues Related to Fresh Water Resources in India
Supply Side
• Geographical Limitation: Some of the regions receive a lesser amount of water
due to their topography such as the orientation of the land. Examples are the
coromandel coast, rain shadow regions of western Ghats, Aravalis, etc.
• Variability in water resource and water availability.
• Indian Monsoon System and its nature. Monsoon is concentrated in a short
duration of time. With such a large amount of water storage of water is not
possible.
• Temporal and special variation.
• Melting of the glaciers and global warming. In the short run, it will increase the
supply later.
• Increase in the frequency of floods and droughts.
Demand Side
• High Population
• Water pollution
 • Unsustainable extraction of the groundwater.
• Unplanned urbanization (encroachment of the wetlands and other water bodies
reduces the water percolation and water supply, concretization).
• Lack of recycling.
• Unsustainable agricultural practices such as mismanagement of irrigation.
• Water sharing disputes and inter-state water disputes.
Causes of the Issue Related to Fresh Water Resources in India
• Uneven distribution of the water resources.
• Lack of proper management.
• Unplanned development results in a misbalanced supply and demand equation.
Water Stress and Water Stress areas in India
• When the demand and supply are not equal, it creates water stress.
• India is one of the most water stress countries in the world. It ranked 13th in the
water stress country in the world.
• Falken Mark Indicator is used to measure water availability and water stress in the
country.
• As per the Falken Mark Indicator, the overall availability drops less than 1700
meters cube/per person/per year, the country is known as the water tress.
• If it is 1000 meters cube/per person/per year then the country is known as the
water-scarce country.
Water Stress Region of India
• Northern Region: It includes Delhi, Punjab, Harayana, J&K and Laddakh, Himachal
Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, It is the highest water stress. It is the high pollution and
population, faulty irrigation practices, rapid urbanization, deforestation, and
excessive groundwater extraction.
• Western region: Gujarat, Rajashtan, western MP, and Maharashtra. Rainshadow
region, Salinization, unsustainable agriculture practices, deforestation,
• Southern Region: It includes Goa, Karnataka, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra
Pradesh. Inter-state water disputes, rain shadow region, a perennial river, plateau
region (hard rocks result in less water percolation and cause a very low level of the
groundwater), excessive extraction of the groundwater, and unplanned
urbanization.
• Eastern Region: Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh,
and Eastern MP, West Bengal (Arsenic Pollution). Mining, population,
• North Eastern Region: It is the only region that is not facing water scarcity at the
present time. It has excess water.
Water Management (11:47:00 AM)
• Afforestation and Reforestation.
• Rainwater Harvesting
• Reduce the pollution
• Waste management
• We need effective implementation of the programs and schemes.
• Stringent punishment
• Community participation.
• Recycle and reuse at the household level, big apartment, etc.
• Well-planned urbanization.
• Watershed development.
The topic for the next class discussion: Rainwater harvesting, the National River Linking
Project, Vegetation, etc

A brief recap of the previous class lecture (09:14:00 AM)

Watershed (09:19:00 AM)
• An area of land where all the water that is above it or under it drains off and collects
into one particular water channel or water body is known as the watershed.
• Watershed development implies rational utilization of land and water resources for
optimum and sustained production with minimum hazards with natural resources.
• It involves the conservation and management of both surface and groundwater
using the watershed as a single unit.
Rainwater Harvesting (09:24:00 AM)
• It is a technique of collection and storage of the rainwater into natural water
reservoirs or tanks or through the infiltration of surface water into sub-surface
aquifers.
• It dilutes contaminants and increases the groundwater level.
• Method of Rainwater Harvesting involves rooftop harvesting, in-situ harvesting,
construction of check dams, and groundwater collection using ponds and lakes.
Sustainable Agriculture (09:44:00 AM)
• It is an agriculture practice using the resources available on the farm to produce
healthy food.
• It involves methods like mulching, cropping as per the water availability, use of the
indigenous crops, micro-irrigation such as sprinkler and drip irrigation, etc.
• In organic farming, we do not use chemical inputs.
National River Linking Project (10:55:00 AM)
• It aims to transfer water from the surplus basin to the deficit basin involving 30
links connecting 37 rivers. It involves 14 links in the Himalayan component and 16
links in peninsular components.
Benefits National River Linking Project
• It helps in reducing floods in northern regions.
• It helps in reducing droughts in peninsular regions.
• It helps in the growth of the fishing industry.
• It helps in inland water transportation.
• It helps in irrigation.
• It helps in the generation of hydropower.
• It helps in improving in drinking water supply in urban areas.
Issue Associated with National River Linking Project
• Ecological Issues: It results in submergence of the vegetation on a large scale
(Submergence of the Panna Biosphere Reserve due to Ken-Betwa Linking project).
 • It also results in the loss of the wildlife species and also creates man-animal
conflicts such as elephants coming in the agricultural fields.
• It also results in loss of biodiversity and disturbance of the river ecology.
• Economical: It requires a high cost for the implementation and maintenance.
• Social Issue: It can result in displacement of the large scale people and thus can
increase migration.
• Administrative problem: The definition of the surplus has no criterion. It can also
increase interstate water disputes.
• It can result in International disputes with the neighboring countries.
Conclusion
• Composite Water Management Index by the NITI Aayog.
• The project should be implemented in a phased-wise manner.
• Proper Environment Impact Assessment should be done before the
implementation.
Natural Vegetation (10:48:00 AM)
• World’s Vegetation Types
Tropical Rain Forest or Tropical Evergreen Forest
• It has a very high density and biodiversity.
• It has a multi-layered arrangement of vegetation with low undergrowth.
• It has a higher number of climbers. The diversity of flora and fauna is very high.
• The tree grows to a very tall height.
• Amazon, Ecuador, Congo Basin, and South East Asia are the region that covers
the Tropical Rain Forest or Tropical Evergreen Forest.
Monsoon Forest or Tropical Monsoon Forest
• It is dominated by deciduous types of vegetation.
• Seasonal reversal of winds and definite dry seasons are the main characteristics.
• The tree shades leave during the winter
• The density and biodiversity are less as compared to the Tropical Rain Forest or
Tropical Evergreen Forest.
• India, South Asia, Eastern Africa, and Northern Australia are the regions that come
under the Monsoon Forest or Tropical Monsoon Forest
Mediterranean Types of Vegetation
• It is also known as the Chaparral vegetation.
• It has dry summer and wet winter. Thus rainfall takes place in winter.
• It has evergreen types of vegetation.
• It has short bushes with a deep root system so as to observe the water from the
deeper part in summer.
• Citrus fruits such as grapes, olives, oranges, etc. are common. It is known for its
Viticulture (grapes and wine making).
• Mediterranean Region, California, Central Chile, Western South Africa, and
Southern Australia are the regions that come under the Mediterranean Types of
Vegetation.
Mix Type Vegetation
• It is found in temperate regions.
• Broad leaves, deciduous and coniferous forest.
• Precipitation is uniform and moderate.
• North East USA, Western Europe, and New Zealand are the region that comes under
the Mix Type Vegetation.
Coniferous Forest or Taiga Forest or Boreal Forest
• In terms of the area covered it is the largest. It is found only in Northern
Hemisphere.
• It is covered by snow in winter and remains green during the summer.
• It has low diversity due to harsh climatic conditions. Thus, it makes it a more fragile
system.
• It makes the commercially more profitable.
• It is an evergreen forest.
• Siberia, Northern Europe, Canada, and Alaska, are the regions that are covered
under the Coniferous Forest or Taiga Forest, or Boreal Forest
Lumbering Activity (11:17:00 AM)
• It is well developed in temperate regions as compared to tropical regions.
• Softwood and hardwood
• Temperate regions contain softwoods that are easier to transport.
• The high biodiversity of tropical regions will not allow clear felling. However, in the
temperate regions the uniform stands of the same age, same height, and of single
species are easy to cut down.
• Temperature condition is harsh (high temperature and precipitation) in tropical
regions making it difficult for commercial activities such as lumbering activities.
• Thick and dense vegetation in tropical regions restricts high-scale mechanization
and transportation whereas, in temperate regions, the transportation is easier
along with the snow-covered surface and usage of rivers for the transportation of
the less dense softwood.
• Soil Condition: The soil of tropical regions is fragile due to heavy leaching.
Deforestation will increase soil erosion and deteriorate the quality of the soil.
• Presence of the tribal population and shifting cultivation in the tropical regions.
• However, the hardwood of the tropical regions is more valuable.
Natural Vegetation of India (11:34:00 AM)
• Champion and Seth Classification: It provides for the 16th type of vegetation in
India.
• It can broadly be divided into five types that are Tropical Evergreen, Tropical
Deciduous
Tropical Evergreen
• It is further divided into three types that are Tropical Wet Evergreen, Tropical Semi-
Evergreen, and Tropical Dry Evergreen.
• The rainfall is above 250 cm in wet evergreen forests. It has a very dense forest and
a large number of species.
• Climbers and epiphytes are common.
• It has low undergrowth.
• The western side of western Ghats, parts of Odisha, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Rest
of North East, Andaman, and Nicobar.
• Semi-Evergreen Forest has the same characteristics with low biodiversity.
• The rainfall is around 200 cm.
• Mahagony is the tallest tree. Ebony, Rosewood, Laurel (also known as water tree as
it stores water in its trunk), Jamun, Rubber,
• Dry Evergreen Forest: It is found on the coromandel coast. It receives winter
precipitation. Important trees are Tamarind, Neem, Jamun, Tadi Palm,
Tropical Deciduous
 • It is further classified into the Moist and Dry deciduous.
• The rainfall is between 100 to 200 cm for the moist deciduous and it is between 70
to 100 for the dry deciduous.
• Moist Deciduous: It is a multi-layered and luxuriant deciduous type.
• It is found in the regions surrounding the evergreen, wetter part of the MP,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh.
• Teak, Sal, Badam, Sandal Wood, Shisham,
• Dry Deciduous: Less density, not luxuriant, and not a continuous patch of the
forest.
• It is found in a wide strip that runs north to south from Himalaya to Kanyakmari
except in the regions of the moist deciduous and tropical thorn.
• Examples are bamboo, sandalwood, and red sanders (red sandalwood that is
restricted to the Tirupati region).
Tropical Thorn Forest
• It is basically a type of forest-grown in the region with precipitation less than 70 cm.
• It is open forest, xerophytic, small trees and shrubs,
• It is found in regions such as southern Punjab, Rajasthan, part of Haryana, Gujarat,
and rain shadow regions of the Deccan plateau.
• Examples of trees are Babul, Khair, Acacia, Neem, sandalwood, etc.
The topic for the next class discussion: Vegetation will be continued, Agriculture

Revision: (9:11 AM)

• Watershed development.
• Rainwater harvesting.
• Sustainable agriculture.
• National Riverlinking Program.
• Types of forests.
Montane vegetation: (9:18 AM)
• Up to 1500 meters, it is a mixed forest.
• And between 1500 to 3500 it is coniferous forest.
• Beyond 3500 it changes to grasslands and short bushes called alpine vegetation.
• The grasslands of the Himalayas are known as Bugyals.
• Transhumance: It is the activity of taking the livestock/cattle for grazing on the
upper levels of mountains in summers by the herder communities.
• Vegetation found in mountains:
• Chir, pine, deodar, rhododendrons, oak, maple, juniper, etc.
Littoral and Swamp Forest: (9:33 AM)
• Mangrove vegetation.
• It is the evergreen species of varying density and height grown in the conditions of a
mix of salt and fresh water, majorly along deltas.
 • Vegetation found in swamps:
• Pnumatophores: Roots that come above, and are capable of absorbing nutrients
and gases directly from the air.
• Impermeable roots: so that it will not absorb excessive salt.
• Stilt roots: to survive above water and to accommodate varying water levels.
• The seeds are buoyant for easy dispersal and survival.
• Viviparous seeds.
• Controlled opening of stomata to prevent loss of water due to evaporation.
• The bark has air pours to absorb gases directly.
• Examples: Sundari trees, Rhizophora, Agar, Sonneratia, Bruguiera, etc.
• Found in: Sunderbans, Bhitarkanika in Odhisha, Mahanadi Delta, Coringa
Mangroves, K-G Delta, Picchavaram, Muthupet mangrove, Vembanad lake,
Kundapur, Ratnagiri, Gulf of Kutchh.
Significance of Mangroves: (9:47 AM)
• It is the only vegetation that can survive in salt water.
• It is umbrella species of the coastal ecosystem that provides for productivity and
habitat.
• It prevents coastal erosion.
• It reduces the impact of cyclones and tsunamis.
• It helps in the recycling of nutrients.
• It is a source of timber and tourism.
Issues with mangrove vegetation: (10:03 AM)
• Excessive extraction of timber.
• Development of coastal infrastructure, and coastal encroachments.
• Water pollution.
• Oil spill.
• Excessive use of fertilizers causes eutrophication.
• Global warming, warming of oceans, rise in sea level.
• Ocean acidification.
• Changes in water flow due to the construction of dams and reservoirs.
• Variation of salinity and sediments.
World Agriculture Regions: (10:12 AM)
• Tropical and Temperate agriculture practices:
Tropical Agriculture Temperate Agriculture
Mediterranean type of agriculture.
Nomadic herding. Extensive commercial grain (wheat) farming.
Shifting cultivation. Extensive commercial livestock ranching.
Intensive subsistence. Mixed farming (crops and livestock).
Plantation agriculture. Commercial dairy farming.
Market gardening or truck farming.
Nomadic herding: (10:34 AM)
• This is the simplest form of pastoralism.
• They depend primarily on animals rather than crops.
• They depend on animals for milk, meat, skin, and wool.
• Animals: Camels in North Africa and the Middle East, horses in Central Asia, Yak and
Lama in colder regions, e.g. Mongolia and China.
• Sheep and goats in semi-arid regions.
 • The important characteristic of nomadic herding is transhumance.
• Transhumance: movement of herders as per seasons, e.g. communities like Gaddis,
Budiyas, Bakerwal, etc.
Shifting cultivation: (10:37 AM)
• The particular patch of forest is cut down and burnt.
• Primitive agriculture is practiced.
• For 3-4 years, and then move to the next patch.
• It is also called as Slash and Burn agriculture.
• It is mostly community-owned practice and requires a large forest area.
• Regions: Amazon, Venezuela, Mexico, Congo Basin, South East Asia, North East
India, parts of Western Ghats.
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: (10:45 AM)
• It is dominated by rice farming.
• Small and highly fragmented landholdings.
• High population density.
• Multiple crops per year.
• It is dominated by manual labor and the involvement of family members.
• Per hectare output is very high.
• But per capita production is very low.
• Regions: South Asia, Delta regions of Ganga, Brahmaputra, parts of Eastern China.
Plantation Agriculture: (10:49 AM)
• They are large estates.
• Require high capital.
• Highly centralized.
• Scientifically managed.
• Export-oriented.
• Requires manual labor.
• Regions: Malaysia, known for rubber plantations, Indonesia, sugarcane plantations,
India, tea and coffee plantations, Sri Lanka: tea. West Africa: Coffee and Cocoa,
West Indies: Banana and Sugarcane.
Mediterranean type of agriculture: (11:14 AM)
• Winter precipitation and summer dryness.
• The plants which grow here are short bushes with deep root systems.
• For example, grapes, olives, oranges, and other citrus fruits.
• Viticulture involves grape production and winemaking.
• Regions: Mediterranean region, California, Central Chile, near Cape Town, Southern
and Western Australia.
Extensive Commerical Grain Farming: (11:17 AM)
• Done on extensive/large area of land.
• Wheat monoculture is practiced.
• Done in a business/commercial manner.
• Not for personal consumption.
• It is dominated by wheat monoculture.
• With a single crop on a large area of land.
• Highly mechanized and scientifically managed.
• Labour requirement is less.
• Higher requirement of capital.
• Low population density.
 • Per hectare output is low, and per capita output is very high, in comparison to
intensive subsistence agriculture.
• Temperate grasslands.
• Regions: Prairies of North America, Steppes of Eastern Europe, Pampas, Velds, and
Downs.
Commercial livestock ranching: (11:23 AM)
• Commercial rising of livestock over an extensive area.
• Large ranches are maintained to feed animals.
• Follow scientific methods of breeding.
• Ranches are managed scientifically.
• Animals: sheep, cattle, goats, horses, etc.
• Alpha-alpha grass is grown, which is very nutritious.
• Regions: Western USA, Western Mexico, Pampas of South America, South Africa,
arid interiors of Australia.
Mixed farming (11:32 AM)
• It is a combination of crop farming and livestock ranching.
• Crops are used for both human and animal consumption.
• For example maize and corn.
• Requires high expenditure on machinery and farm buildings.
• It also results in high returns.
• Regions: East of Prairies in North America, Western Europe, North-East Argentina,
South-East Australia
Commercial dairy farming: (11:34 AM)
• It requires high capital.
• Use of machinery as well as manual labor.
• High productivity.
• High commercialization.
• Higher density of population.
• Regions: North-West Europe, Denmark, Netherlands, etc. North East USA, South-
East Australia, New Zealand, eastern Argentina.
Market Gardening/ Truck Farming: (11:38 AM)
• It is called truck farming or factory farming.
• It involves the growing of fruits and vegetables near urban centers so that
perishable goods can be transported overnight in trucks.
• Regions: major urban centers of the world, e.g. northwest Europe, North East USA,
etc.
Land use categories in India: (11:42 AM)
• There are a total of eight land use categories:
• 1. Forest: Area under forest cover.
• 2. Area under Non-agricultural use: such as human settlements, roads, and other
infrastructures.
• 3. Barren and Wasteland: Land which cannot be brought under cultivation with
presently available technology, for example, deserts and ravines.
• 4. The area under permanent pastures and tree crops: Which are commonly
owned.
• 5. Net Sown Area: Area which is under cultivation in the current year. (Gross
cropped area is the total area under cultivation where the area which is sown
multiple times is accounted for multiple times.)
 • 6. Current Fallow: Land which has not been cultivated for the last year.
• 7. Fallow other than Current Fallow: Not cultivated for more than one year but less
than 5 years.
• 8. Culturalable wasteland: Not cultivated for more than 5 years.
• Net Sown Area: 46%
• Forest: 24%
• The area is under non-agricultural use. 9%
• Barren and wasteland. 6%.
• Areas which have Increased:
• Forest area, net sown area, the area under non-agricultural use, current fallow,
• Areas which have decreased:
• Barren and fallow,
• Permanent pastor,
• Culturable wasteland has decreased.
• Fallow land has decreased.
• Crop intensity= (Gross Cropped Area)/(Net Sown Area) x 100.
Green Revolution: (12:05 PM)
• Inputs used for Green Revolution:
• High Yielding Variety Seeds (HYV Seeds).
• Higher production, fast-growing, early maturing.
• Densely growing.
• Requires good irrigation facilities, will deplete resources faster, and need to use
chemical fertilizers.
• Need insecticides, high capital is needed.
• Government subsidy is also required.
• Minimum Support Price is announced to support the sowing of crops.
Phases of Green Revolution: (12:16 PM)
• Phase 1: 1961 to 1968 (premature phase): The government started IADP (Integrated
Agriculture Development Program).
• Phase 2: 1968-1981 (mature phase): Covering Punjab, Haryana, and Western UP.
• Phase 3: 1981-1992: Tried to go beyond Punjab, Haryana, and UP, and focused on
West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, etc. in rice-growing regions.
Production was more than doubled.
Implications of Green Revolution: (12:20 PM)
• Self-sufficiency in food production.
• Growth of commercial agriculture.
• Increase in employment, and livelihood opportunities.
• Able to control famines, etc.
Negative implications:
• Administrative implications:
• Regional disparity in agriculture.
• Neglect of dryland agriculture.
• Neglect of crops other than rice and wheat.
• Ecological implications:
• Neglect of indigenous varieties of seeds.
• Reduction in biodiversity.
• Land degradation, excessive use of chemical fertilizers, faulty irrigation, etc.
• Depletion of groundwater, soil salinization, and waterlogging.
 • Increased pests and insects.
• Increased soil erosion, and deforestation.
• Social implementation:
• The increased disparity among farmers.
• Increase of landless laborers.
• Increase in migration.
• Cancer issue of Punjab.
• Economic implementation:
• Neglect of agriculture in other parts of the country.
• Regional disparity, e.g. richer states like Punjab, Haryana, etc.
The topic for the next class: Agriculture and mineral resources

The class started at 9.07 AM

A brief overview of the previous class:
• Different types of vegetation:
• Montane type
• Mangroves
• Grasslands, etc.
• World Agricultural regions,
• Land use categories/patterns in India,
• Green Revolution& its phases, etc.
Cropping seasons: (at 9.24 PM)
• Kharif season:
• Sowing season: June-July.
• Kharif means "Autumn".
• Kharif is an Urdu word.
• Harvest (in September-October) of Kharif crops is done in autumn and hence the
name "Kharif".
• Crops are Rice, sugarcane, cotton, jute, millets (Jowar, Bajra, Ragi), maize,
• Rabi season:
• Sowing season: October-November.
• Harvesting season: March-April.
• Corps are wheat, mustard, gram, linseed,
• Zaid:
• Sowing season: August-September (Zaid-Kharif) and Feb-March (Zaid-Rabi)
• Harvesting season: Dec-Jan (Zaid Kharif) and April-May (Zaid Rabi).
• Crops are vegetables & fruits, oilseeds, etc.
Main crops of India: (at 9.42 AM)
• NOTE: Kindly refer to the relevant table shown by Rajesh sir through his ppt in the
live class.
• Temperature and crops:
•
Temperature
Crops:
range:
High (25°C - Rice, Jute, Sunflower,
35°C) coffee, rubber,
Moderate (20°C - Sugarcane, Cotton, Tea,
25°C) pulses, oilseeds, maize,
Low (20°C -
Mustard
15°C)
Very low
Wheat
(<15°C)
• Precipitation and crops:
•

Precipitation: Crops:

o Very high: Rice, jute, tea,

150-200 cm coffee, rubber
o High: 100-
Sugarcane
150 cm
o Moderate: 75-
Wheat, Maize
100 cm
Pulses, Oilseeds,
o Low <75 cm
Cotton
• Soil and Crops:
•

Soils: Crops:

Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane, Jute,

Alluvial soil
Cotton, maize,
Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Spices,
Laterite soil
Casewnut, etc
Pulses, Oilseeds, Maize,
Red soil
Vegetables & fruits.
Cotton, Sugarcane, Oilseeds,
Black soil
Tobacco
• Tea producing areas/states:
• 55% of Tea production in India comes from Assam.
• Other tea-growing states are Kerala, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, H.P, Tripura, Arunachal
Pradesh, etc.
• Coffee-producing states:
• The most famous producing state is Karnataka.
• Other producing states are Kerala, TN, etc.
 • Rubber-growing states:
• Kerala
Millets: (at 10.19 AM)
• Bajra Jowar Ragi:
• 30°C <------------ 20°C
• 50 cm ----------> 100cm
• Bajara is also called Pearl millet.
• Jowar is called Sorghum.
• Ragi is called Finger millet.
• Savan is called little millet.
Rice-wheat crop combination: (at 10.29 AM)
• The entire Gangetic plain is known for its rice-wheat crop combination.
• Alluvial soil.
• The rich practice of irrigation.
• Good demand for wheat as well as rice.
• High population and high profit.
• Issues:
• Over-irrigation
• Due to Green Revolution, depletion of soil nutrients, etc
• More use of chemicals, fertilizers, and pesticides.
• Both crops require a lot of water and mechanization.
• Stubble burning (reasons: Very less time between the harvesting of paddy crops
and sowing of the wheat crops; fast removal of waste from fields, etc).
Pulses: (at 10.38 AM)
• India produces 25% of pulses in the world, still, India is the largest importer of
pulses in the world.
• Temperature: 25 degrees Celcius
• Rainfall: <75cm
• Soil: Any type
• States: M.P (Highest production), Karnataka, M.H, U.P, Rajasthan, etc.
• Issues:
• Reduced concentration in the Green Revolution areas.
• Higher MSP support for rice and wheat.
• Pod-borer pests impacted the crop.
• Not good profit/incentives for farmers to grow (Eg: market structure, etc).
• An issue in the supply chain and low market price.
• Reforms required for pulse production:
• An increase in land under pulse cultivation,
• Provide better seeds for an increase in production
• Include pulses under PDS
• Improve market supply chain
• Encourage private players and contract farming
• Common names of the pulses:
• Chickpea (Chana daal or Gram or Bengal gram: largest produced).
• Pigeon pea (Tur Dal or Arhar dal)
• Urad dal (made up of black gram)
• Masoor dal or Lentil
• Moong dal or Green gram
 • The above five pulses are under MSP.
• Horse gram
Previous Years' MCQs asked in the UPSC CSE: (at 11.00 AM)
Oilseeds: (at 11.21 AM)
• Rainfall: <75cm
• Soil: Ant type of soil
• Regions: Most of the rainfed regions. States like M.P (highest production),
Rajasthan, M.H, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.
• India (the fourth-largest producer) produces 10% of global oilseed production but
it fulfills only 40% of India's demand.
• Palm oil (highest), Soya, and sunflower.
• Import: Palm oil (most imported oil from Indonesia & Malaysia), Soya oil comes
from Brazil, etc, and Sunflower oil comes from Ukraine & Argentina.
• Issues:
• Similar issues like the above section (issue related to pulses).
• Steps need to be taken:
• Improved variety of seeds
• Technological support to increase yield
• Setting up of Processing plants to provide backward linkages.
• Utilizing untapped potential such as rice bran oil (healthier), cotton seed oil, etc.
• Micro-irrigation to increase yield.
• Government scheme:
• Integrated schemes for Oil seeds, oil palm, pulses, and Maize (ISOPOM)
Development Program.
• Important Oil Seeds:
• Total eight (8) for which MSP support is given by the government.
• Groundnut
• Soybean
• Sunflower
• Safflower
• Mustard/Rapeseed
• Toria (Very similar to mustard)
• Sesamum
• Nigerseed
Mineral and Energy Resources: (at 11.41 AM)
• Types:
• Metallic minerals (Ferrous & Non-ferrous minerals)
• Non-metallic minerals
• Energy minerals
• World's Distribution of Metallic minerals:
• Iron:
• Major minerals are required for industrial development.
• Iron ores: Magnetite (contains the highest quality & quantity of iron), Hematite
(maximum availability), Limonite, and Siderite.
• Magnetite is igneous in nature.
• Magnetite in Black, Hematite in Red, Limonite in Brown, and Siderite in Grey colors.
• In North America: Near Great Lakes, Appalachian mountains, etc.
• In South America: Brazil, Near Venezuela, Parts of Peru & Chile.
 • In Europe: Lorraine (France), Bilba (In Spain), Ukraine, etc
• Asia has the highest reserve of iron. Eg: Russia, China (Manchuria regions), etc.
• In Africa: South Africa, some parts of Western Africa.
• Australia: Northern part, etc.
• Manganese:
• Ore: Pyrolusite.
• No major region in North America.
• In South America: Mato Grasso, and Minas Jerai (in Brazil).
• In Asia: Russia (Near Ural etc), Ukraine (Eg: Tokamak)
• Copper:
• Ore: Chalco Pyrites.
• In Canada (near Sudbury, Lean lake) and some parts of the USA.
• In South America: Chile (one of the largest regions).
• Africa: Katanga
• Asia: Lake Balkhash (Russia), Ulanbatore (Mongolia)
• Aluminum:
• Ore: Bauxite
• More amount than copper and Maganese.
• In the USA: Texas & Alabama.
• In South America: Jamaika, Suriname, Guyana, etc.
• In Europe: Near France, Hungry, Urals, etc.
• India has one of the largest reserves.
• Gold:
• Alaska (Yukon river), near California,
• In Russia: Near Lake Baikal, Kolima river, etc.
• Best gold in the world from South Africa.
• Australia: Kalgurli and Kulgardi.
• Tin:
• Found majority in S-E Asia (Malaysia, Thailana).
• Nigeria.
• Coal:
• Anthracite (>90%), Bituminous (60-80%), Lignite (>38% Carbon) and peat (<38%
carbon).
• Anthracite: Best quality.
• Regions: In the USA, Russia, etc.
• In Asia: China, Russia, etc.
• Petroleum:
• Near or on the continental shelf and the land which was once buried under the
ocean.
• Major regions: Gulf of Mexico, Prairie, Laka Maracaibo, Libya (northern part of
Africa), Nigeria, North Sea (One of the best quality Petroleum: Brent crude), West
Asia, Brunei, parts of China, etc.
• Shale gas:
• Very similar to natural gas but trapped under rocks' pores.
• Shale is a sedimentary rock.
• Regions: China, Argentina, the USA, Canada, India (11th position).
• NOTE: Kindly refer to the relevant handout shown/given by Rajesh sir.
The topics for the next class: (Mineral distributions in India, Industries, etc)
Revision: (9:07 AM)
• Rabi and Kharif crops
• Precipitation and Crops
• Plantation Crops
• Millets, e.g. bajra, ragi, etc.
• Rice-wheat combination, issues.
• Pulses, conditions required, issues, etc.
• Oilseeds, issues, oilseed under MSP.
• Distribution of minerals in the world.
Distribution of minerals in India: (9:15 AM)
• Rock Formation in India:
Archean rock system:
• Oldest rock system, forming the basic/fundamental complex of rock system in the
country.
• It has no fossils.
• Difficult to mine.
• Economically not important.
Dharwar Rock system:
• Sedimentary in nature.
• Chota Nagpur in Jharkahand.
• This is very rich in terms of metallic minerals.
• Gold, silver, etc.
• No fossils are present.
• They are the oldest sedimentary rocks.
Cuddapah Rock system:
• Due to erosion of Archean and Dharwar rocks.
• Cuddapah is associated with non-metallic minerals.
• Limestone, dolomite, glass-making sand, etc.
Vindhyan rock system:
• Formed due to rifting activities.
• Limestone and sandstone.
• Known for diamond mining.
• For example, Panna and Golconda mines.
Gondwana Rock system:
• Split of Gondwana from Pangea.
• Upper Carboniferous period along rift valleys of Damodar, Son, and Godawari.
• It contains coal deposits.
Deccan Traps:
• Due to the eruption of basaltic magma.
 • Minerals are not usually found.
Tertiary Rock system:
• The Himalayas.
• Sedimentary in nature.
• Formed recently.
• No metallic minerals.
• Some limestone deposits are found near Pir Panjal.
Quaternary Rock system:
• After the formation of the Himalayas.
• Forming the great northern plains, devoid of minerals.
Minerals in India: (9:42 AM)
Iron:
• Odisha: Gurumahisani, Sulepat and Badam Pahar in Mayurbhanj.
• Baramjader group extended in Keonjhar and Sundargarh districts.
Bauxite:
• Odisha has the richest Bauxite mines.
• Posco and Vedanta were given mining leases, amid controversy.
Mica:
• Used in electrical insulation.
• Found in Bihar, Jharkhand, etc.
• Gaya, Munger in Bihar.
Gold:
• Used to be found in:
• Kolar Gold Fields.
• Hatti Gold Mines.
• Anantpur Andhra Pradesh.
• Baghmara Mines in Chattisgarh.
• Subarnarekha River in Jharkhand has placer deposits of gold.
• Gold in India is mostly imported.
Coal:
• Found in river valleys.
• Associated with Gondwana rock formation.
Shale Gas:
• Found in is locked in the rocks.
• In shale rocks (type of sedimentary rock).
• Cambay Basin, Assam Arakan Basin.
• Ganga Basin.
• Damodar or Gondwana Basin.
• KG Basin.
• Kaveri Basin.
Uranium (international reserves):
• It is found in:
• Australia
• Kazakhstan,
• Canada,
• Namibia,
• Mongolia,
• In India, uranium is found in:
 • Tummalapalle (Andhra Pradesh),
• Lambapur, Pedagattu, Nalgonda (Telangana),
• Jaduguda, Turamidh (Jharkhand)
• Mogarra (Maharashtra)
Thorium Reserves:
• Andhra Pradesh has the richest Thorium deposits.
• Kerala,
• Tamil Nadu
• Karnataka
• Odisha, Jharkhand.
Issues related to Mining: (10:18)
• Ecological:
• Soil Degradation
• Pollution, water pollution.
• Air pollution due to open cast mining, e.g. in coal mining and iron mining.
• Coal ash/fly ash due to burning of coal.
• Economic:
• Loss of revenue to the state.
• Contractors often mine in areas
• Technological:
• Primitive technology.
• Rathole mining.
• Unsafe practices, poor gears, etc.
• Social:
• Illegal mining.
• Violation of human rights.
• Loss of revenue, and royalty to the government.
Issues in Shale gas extraction: (10:42 AM)
• Guar gum is used.
• Land acquisition for shale extraction is difficult.
• Water is needed for extraction.
• Water used for extraction is polluted, hence discharge is difficult.
• Shale gas extraction is costly, technology is still under development.
Manufacturing Industry: (11:11 AM)
• Production of identical goods on large scale using raw materials, machinery,
power, and specialized labor in a factory setting is called the manufacturing
industry.
• Manufacturing involves the production of standardized commodities.
Factors affecting the location of the industry:
• To reduce the cost of production, and increase profit.
Raw materials:
• Should be cheaper, easily available, and easy to transport.
• Weight losing raw material: Sugarcane
• Perishable: For example sugar industry.
• Non-weight losing:
Market size:
• Size of the market.
• Distance from industry, raw material, etc.
Labour:
• Skilled or unskilled labor.
• Cheap or costly labor.
Energy:
• Regular or irregular.
• For E.g. Hydropower, e.g. Alimunium smelting is located near a hydropower plant
or thermal power plant.
Infrastructure:
• Good quality infrastructure.
• Faster means to transport.
• Environmentally sound.
Capital:
• Easy availability of capital,
• Government support for small industries, etc.
Government policy:
• Taxes incentives/reduction.
• Easy land,
• Subsidy
• Import Export policy, etc.
Footloose industries: (11:35 AM)
• Industries that are not dependent on specific raw materials and can be established
anywhere are called footloose industries.
• Government policy is a major factor in the location of the footloose industry.
• For example, IT Industry.
• Locational factors: Skilled labor, e.g. IT Industry in Banglore, Chennai, Hyderabad,
Gurgaon, etc.
• Government policy through tax incentives and other supports.
• Infrastructure: Communication, internet facilities.
• Market: Hub of large companies, expansion through competition.
Agro-Based Industries: (11:41 AM)
• Cotton textile industry.
• Cotton textile is the largest agro-based industry in India, in terms of employment.
The cotton textile industry is of 3 types:
• Handlooms, e.g. khadi
• Powerlooms, using the machine, but small scale.
• Mills: Higher use of machinery, done at a big scale.
• Raw material:
• Cotton is grown in black soil as well as alluvial soil.
• It is non-weight-losing and easier to transport.
• Market:
• The dominating factor is the market.
• Good transport is needed.
• It is established near the market.
• Distribution of cotton industry:
• First Cotton Mill: Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company, established in 1854.
• It was established around Bombay and Gujarat.
• Bombay is called as Cottonopolis of India.
• Sholapur, Nagpur, Vadodara, Surat, Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, etc.
 • Coimbatore is called as Manchester of South India.
• Selam, Madurai, Tirpur, etc.
• UP, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh: Big market, alluvial soil, transport, etc.
• Kanpur, Bhopal, Varanasi, Agra, Mathura, Kolkata.
Problems of Cotton Textile Industry: (12:01 PM)
• Superior quality cotton is not available.
• Fluctuation in production.
• Dependence on Bt Cotton.
• Market issues, shifting of companies to Bangladesh and Vietnam.
• Old machinery, technology.
• At the world level: The biggest producers of cotton are China, the USA, Egypt, and
Uzbekistan.
• Major Imports: Europe.
Jute Textile Industry: (12:03 PM)
• Locational factors: in a few regions, West Bengal and Assam.
• Conditions:
• High temperature, high precipitation, high humidity, alluvial soil.
• Jute is non-weight losing industry.
• Cheap labor is needed.
• Water is needed in abundant quantities.
• Located in river deltas.
• A good and regular supply of power is needed.
• Port facility, capital from British, natural growth conditions and then cheap labor,
water from Hoogly river.
• First Jute Factory: Rishra, 1855
• Bangladesh is the largest producer.
• Major centers: Rishra, Hawra, Sarampur, etc.
• Jute mills have shifted in three directions (UP, Madhya Pradesh, and Andra
Pradesh) due to: packaging regulations. Andhra Pradesh (for rice packing), Madhya
Pradesh (cement packing), UP (sugarcane packing), Jute Packaging Act of 1987.
Issues related to the jute industry:
• Old machinery,
• Tough competition from Bangladesh, use of plastic bags.
• Trade unionism in West Bengal.
• Significance:
• Jute is biodegradable and environmentally friendly.
• It is cheaper, a large potential for employment creation.
• It is also called golden fiber.
Topic for the next class: Other industries, transport, and population
India Map: (9:10 AM)
• The map can be started with Kashmir.
• Himachal and Uttarakhand, then regions of UP, Sikkim, North-East states.
• Some reference points in Meghalaya, West Bengal, etc.
• From West Bengal to Kanyakumari, the coastline has to be drawn.
• From Kanyakumari to Gujarat, a simple line can be drawn, then the shape of
Gujarat.
• Rajasthan has some reference points, 45 degrees line, joining the Jammu and
Kashmir, etc.
• Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar islands should also be drawn.
Silk Textile Industry: (9:35 AM)
• Historical significance: Traded since ancient times.
• Very ‘fine’ silk was produced in India.
• Raw Material:
• Silkworms make nests as cocoons.
• Rearing of silkworms is done.
• Government Policy:
• It impacts in terms of the market price.
• Not much subsidy is available.
• Distribution:
• Mulberry Silk (largest production in India): Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
• Karnataka: Mysore Silk, Bangalore Silk, Kollar Silk.
• Tamil Nadu: Kanchi, Tanjavur, Trichi Silk.
• Andhra: Annantpur, Karnur, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam Silk.
• Erie silk in West Bengal.
• Assam Silk: golden silk is known as Muga silk.
• Tussar silk:
• Oak Tussar silk in UP, Bihar.
• Tropical Tussar silk: In Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha.
• Erie Silk is also known as Ahimsa silk.
• Issues with the silk industry:
• Competition from China, Japan, and Italy, as well as competition from artificial silk.
• No regular supply of silk.
• Sericulture can be an important source of side income for the farmers.
• Can be done in the dry season.
• Good for women farmers.
• It is labor-intensive, with more chances of employment.
• Government support, etc. can be done.
Sugar Industry: (9:52 AM)
• Second to the cotton industry in terms of employment generation.
• Raw Material:
• It is the most important factor in the location of the sugarcane industry.
• Weight losing industry (1/10).
• Sugarcane is perishable.
• It dries up during transportation.
 • Sucrose content is best extracted when it is extracted within 24 hrs of cutting.
• Distribution:
• Located along the regions of sugarcane cultivation.
• Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar.
• In South: MH, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
• Alluvial soil, irrigation facilities, good capital.
Important Centers (Sugar Industry): (9:58 AM)
• UP: Saharanpur, Meerut, Bulandshahar, Sitapur,
• Bihar: Champaran, Muzzafarpur,
• Haryana: Ambala, Karnal.
• Punjab: Amritsar, Jalandhar, etc.
• Black soil is considered to be good for sugarcane cultivation.
• Southern States:
• Because of marine conditions, it has higher sucrose content and a longer crushing
period.
• Cooperatives are more efficient and profitable.
• Port facilities in the south: easy to export.
• Productivity is higher in Southern states.
• Centers in South India:
• Maharashtra: Nasik, Pune, Sholapur.
• Karnataka: Belgaum, Mandya, Shimoga.
• Tamil Nadu: Trichi, Salem.
• Andhra Pradesh: North of Godavari.
Issues with the sugarcane industry: (10:05 AM)
• Supply is not regular.
• Seasonal activity, resulting in unemployment.
• Water intensive.
• Low sugar recovery rate.
• Low yield per hectare compared to the world average.
• Price control through FRP: Fair and Remunerative Price.
• Competition from jaggery (Gur).
Iron and steel industry: (10:10 AM)
• Significance:
• It is the foundation of the entire industrial setup.
• Steel production is an indication of economic growth.
• Raw Material:
• Iron,
• Coal,
• Limestone.
• Manganese.
• Water.
• Iron and coal are required in equal proportion.
• Pig iron is produced.
• Pig iron is brittle.
• Manganese is added to convert pig iron to steel.
• Water is required for cooling purposes.
• Infrastructure and Transportation:
• Cheaper means of transportation like Railways are needed.
 • Bidirectional relationship of iron and coal.
• Labour:
• Skilled labor is needed.
• That too should be cheap, large scale.
• Power:
• The regular supply of power, as well as cheap.
• Either hydropower or thermal powerplant.
• Gestation period:
• The iron and Steel industry has a long gestation period.
• Location:
• Traditionally they were located near the raw material-producing regions.
• West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Odisha: have 6 steel plants.
• Jharkhand: Jamshedpur, Bokaro.
• West Bengal: Burnpur Durgapur
• Odisha: Raurkela, Bhilai.
• Andhra: Visakhapatnam
• Karnataka: Bhadravati, Vijayanagar Steel Plant.
• Tamil Nadu: Salem.
Distribution of Iron/Steel industry around the world: (10:34 AM)
• USA: originally near to Great Lake region.
• Pittsburgh was famous (currently it is called a rust bowl).
• Russia: Near Moscow, Tula, etc.
• Germany: Ruhr Valley.
• Great Britain, France, and Belgium.
• China and Japan.
Issues of Iron/Steel Industry: (10:37 AM)
• Long gestation period.
• Huge capital.
• Needs a regular supply of power.
• Requires water, and skilled labor is needed.
Mini Steel Plants: (10:40 AM)
• Near to the market, rather than raw materials.
• Raw material: Scrap iron.
• They have a short gestation period.
• Smaller capital.
• Near to market.
• Fulfills local demands.
• Near to the urban centers.
• For example Japan, Visakhapatnam.
• Issues: power shortage.
• The supply of scrap iron is uneven.
• Inefficient method of waste collection, and segregation.
Cement Industry: (10:44 AM)
• Raw Materials used:
• Limestone,
• Coal,
• Gypsum.
• Limestone: Cuddapah, Vindhyas, and Shiwaliks.
 • Coal: Gondwana regions.
• Gypsum: In Rajasthan.
• Gypsum is also produced from sea shells. (Hence, cement industries are also
located along coastal regions).
• Sludge of fertilizer industry: Can also be used to produce gypsum.
• Gypsum can also be manufactured from the slag from the iron/steel industry.
• Power, Transportation, Market:
• The market is everywhere.
• Power intensive.
• A good transportation network is needed.
Fertilizer Industry: (10:51 AM)
• Huge regional bias. (Mostly in regions of Green Revolution).
• India is not sufficient in fertilizer production.
• Issues:
• Raw material availability,
• Power supply,
• Regional bias,
• Government subsidy dependent.
• Locational factors:
• Majorly nitrogenous fertilizer: Urea.
• Naphtha and Ammonium Sulfate are raw materials.
• Naphtha:
• Near petroleum industries on imported, when fertilizer industries are located near
to the coast.
• Ammonium Sulphate:
• Gujarat, Rajasthan, etc.
• Rock phosphate:
• Used in phosphate fertilizers.
• Import based, as there is a shortage of rock phosphate.
• Sulphuric Acid:
• Comes from the petroleum industry.
• Cheap supply of water.
• Technology should be totally updated.
Regional Resource-based manufacturing: (11:03 AM)
• Based on the availability of resources.
• Less cost of production, more expertise of local people, and more employment
opportunities.
• Disadvantages:
• Price control, monopoly, too much dependence on a single sector, etc.
Transportation Industries: (11:18 AM)
• Roadways, Railways, Waterways, and Airways are different modes of transport.
• Multimodal transportation: More than one mode of transport.
Roadways: Railways: Waterways: Airways:
Advantages: Advantage:
Advantages: Advantages:
Faster. Fastest.
Railways: in Cheapest.
Door-to-door Perishable
a mass scale, Eco-friendly.
transport. goods,
Use it in Comfortable The natural Costly
difficult in a long flow of water, goods.
terrain. journey. etc. can be Security
Less cost of Heavy and used in some and safety.
maintenance. bulky goods. places.
Employment. Low capital
requirements.
Labor
intensive.
Issues with inland waterways: (11:30 AM)
• Irregular flow of water: The availability of water is not regular.
• Water diversion for hydropower projects and irrigation.
• Requires support of other modes of transport.
• Not all the channels are navigable.
• Shifting of rivers and flooding will impact waterways.
• Frequent siltation.
• It is slow compared to other modes.
Terms Related to Population: (11:35 AM)
• Population: The number of people/individuals of a particular species.
• Population density:
• Crude density/Arithmetic Density: Total population/Total area.
• Nutritional Density: (Total Population)/(Agricultural Area)
• Agricultural Density: (Agricultural Population)/(Total Cultivable Area).
• Natural Growth Rate (NGR): (Total live births- Total deaths)/ (Mid-year population
for a factor of 1000)
• Crude Birth Rate: Number of live births/(population)x1000
• Crude death rate: Number of deaths/population x 1000
• Fertility Rate: (Population between 0-4 years)/(Population of females 15-49) x 1000.
Replacement Level Fertility: (11:48 AM)
• It is the fertility rate required for a generation to replace itself.
• It is the average number of children a woman would need to have to reproduce
herself by bearing a daughter who survives to the childbearing age so that each
generation will exactly replace itself without considering migration.
• Infant Mortality Rate: (0-1 years)/Live births per 1000.
• Maternal Mortality Rate: (Number of deaths of women during live births for 1 lakh
live births)
Migration: (11:51 AM)
• Change of residence is called migration.
• Types of migration:
• Internal and External Migration.
• External Migration:
• Brain Drain, emigration/immigration.
• Internal migration is of four types:
• Urban to Urban.
• Rural to Urban.
• Rural to Rural.
• Urban to Rural.
• Causes of migration:
 • Pull factors: (Voluntary)
• Health, education, and better living conditions.
• Push factors: (Forced)
• War, disaster, Naxalism, Khap Panchayat, etc.
Population Pyramid: (11:58 AM)
• A graphical representation of the population of a country is called a population
pyramid.
• Expanding pyramid:
• The birth rate is very high (progressive).
• E.g. Somalia, sub-Sahara, has a rapid death rate.
• Stationary pyramid:
• Low birth rate (e.g. TFR is 2.1).
• Regressive pyramid:
• When TFR is less than 2.1.
• Least developed: High birth rate, high death rate.
• Firstly due to development, the death rate will decline.
• The birth rate will decrease in well-developed countries.
This was the last class of geography for this batch. All the scheduled classes are
completed