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A review on environmental impacts of renewable energy for sustainable

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Article in International journal of Environmental Science and Technology · November 2023

DOI: 10.1007/s13762-023-05380-z

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-023-05380-z

REVIEW

A review on environmental impacts of renewable energy

for sustainable development
D. Gayen1 · R. Chatterjee1 · S. Roy1

Received: 12 July 2023 / Revised: 6 November 2023 / Accepted: 21 November 2023

© The Author(s) under exclusive licence to Iranian Society of Environmentalists (IRSEN) and Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University 2023

Abstract
Pursuing sustainable development in the face of climate change and environmental degradation has led to a significant shift
toward renewable energy sources. A dependable, affordable, and stable renewable energy source must meet almost any future
energy need. This review explores the environmental impacts of various forms of renewable energy, emphasizing their role
in promoting sustainable development. This analysis covers wind, solar, hydropower, and biomass energy, assessing their
benefits and challenges in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, mitigating environmental harm, and fostering long-term sus-
tainability. Based on the current scenario, this review discusses the various possible aspects of the most prevalent renewable
energy sources, their benefits, drawbacks, and future roadmap. Several innovative technologies inspired by these energy
sources, such as solar power windows, energy-efficient buildings, smart grids, and their latest contributions to reducing
environmental hazards, are also highlighted. Such innovations could revolutionize the energy sector and drive sustainable
development globally. Several obstacles stand in the way of advancement, including the incapacity of governments and
corporate entities to finance renewable energy sources. Viewing this aspect, this review thoroughly analyzes renewable
energy production and its advantages and disadvantages, the status of the global output, economic impact, emerging tech-
nologies, and future prospects. We examine the factors contributing to the rise of sustainable energy, assess the challenges,
and explore the potential for a more sustainable energy future. This structured review article comprehensively examines the
novelty within the sustainable energy sector, offering valuable insights into the latest advancements and their implications
for a more sustainable energy future.

Editorial responsibility: Parveen Fatemeh Rupani.

D. Gayen, R. Chatterjee and S. Roy have equal credit.

Extended author information available on the last page of the article

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Graphical abstract

Keywords Renewable energy · Future prospects · Drawbacks · Energy policies · Climate change

Abbreviations NEB National Energy Bureau

HPP Hydro Power Plants
Acronyms
IVA Industry Value Added
COP Conference of Parties
GNE Gross National Expenditure
RREDA Russia Renewable Energy Development
TO Trade Openness
Association
GDP Gross Domestic Product
EEG Act In German: Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz
IEA International Energy Agency
Actor In English: The Renewable Energy
UN United Nations
Sources Act
PV Photovoltaic Units
CSP Concentrating Solar Power TWh Terawatt hour
CVT Capacitor Voltage Transformer MWh Megawatt hour
GHG Greenhouse gas eq/year Equivalent per year
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory Hz Hertz
RSPB Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
EU European Union
SRC Short Rotation Coppice Introduction
SREC Solar Energy Renewable Credits
UNFCCC​ United Nations Framework Convention on Sustainable development requires a transition from fossil
Climate Change fuel dependency to cleaner energy sources. This transforma-
CERC Central Electricity Regulatory Commission tion's key component is renewable energy, which promises
REN21 Renewable Energy Policy Network for 21st fewer negative environmental effects (Osman et al. 2022).
Century It is crucial to highlight the extent to which the developing

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

world has contributed to the population explosion, which has energy production capability. Adding conventional energy
seen millions more people live on the planet in only one gen- sources to the power mix cannot fulfill demand since they
eration. In light of these points, the global energy challenge are limited and non-renewable (Koroneos et al. 2003). As
requires a multifaceted approach that includes technologi- sustainable energy technologies advance rapidly, a critical
cal innovation, sustainable energy development, effective challenge arises in scaling their adoption to meet the grow-
governance, and international collaboration. Moreover, it ing global energy demand while ensuring that advancements
underscores the need for continued dialog and cooperation do not outpace the capacity for widespread implementation.
among nations to ensure energy security, environmental sus- To successfully integrate sustainable energy sources into
tainability, and equitable access to energy resources on a current energy systems, it is necessary to solve obstacles
global scale (Akrofi et al. 2022). Considering energy sources such as inadequate infrastructure, bureaucratic roadblocks,
is crucial for supporting the demands of the planet and its and financial limits. This central problem encapsulates the
population, which is rising at a pace of roughly 0.84% per complex dynamics between the progress of sustainable
year (Vo and Vo 2021; Kannan and Vakeesan 2016). The energy technologies and the practical challenges of large-
yearly increase peaked in the latter half of the 1960s at about scale implementation. This issue must be solved for sustain-
2% (Vo and Vo 2021). Following this point, the speed of able energy to fulfill its potential in reducing climate change
rise has almost halved and will keep decreasing in the years and ensuring energy sustainability. In this sense, this paper
to come. critically explores how renewable energy technologies affect
People need access to enough energy regardless of vari- the environment, highlighting how they support sustainable
ous other conditions, including a country's economic stand- development. The demand for renewable energy is now pre-
ing and technological advancements (Kannan and Vakeesan sent. Continuous exhaustion of finite conventional energy
2016). While readily accessible and frequently used to meet causes unchecked ­CO2 release, which causes the earth's
global energy needs, conventional energy sources release temperature to rise.
several pollutants that seriously harm ecosystems (Moyez Figure 1 depicts the relative rate of growth of CO2 emis-
and Roy 2018). The expanding population must access sions from the start of the industrial revolution to the pre-
profitable contemporary energy, such as household electric- sent (1750–2020). For example, C ­ O2 emissions from natural
ity, agriculture, and other sectors (Moyez and Roy 2017). gas burning reflect 80% of the total fossil fuel use from the
Numerous developing nations continue to live in places that household and production sectors in 2021 (Le Quéré et al.
need more electricity despite numerous suggestions to boost 2013). When natural gas is used for cooking, additional

Fig. 1  Cumulative carbon dioxide ­(CO2) emissions worldwide from 1750 to 2020 (in million metric tons) (Tiseo 2023)

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

gases like methane (­ CH4) and nitrous oxide (­ N2O) are emit- aggregates useful information scattered across myriads of
ted. For instance, making cement produces the most ­CO2 of publications to facilitate easy access of researchers and
any production process; in a single batch of just 1000 kg of renewable energy stakeholders. Effective planning, techno-
cement, over 900 kg of carbon dioxide is created (Ba-Sham- logical advancements, and sustainability practices are essen-
mak et al. 2008). For every ton of steel produced, 1.9 tons tial to minimize the environmental consequences of renewa-
of ­CO2 is released into the atmosphere (Iannuzzi and Fran- ble energy technologies. By solving these issues, society can
kel 2022). Apart from human activity, C ­ O2 is also emitted maximize the benefits of renewable energy sources while
into the surrounding environment by natural breakdowns. fostering a cleaner and more sustainable future.
Oceans, soil, vegetation, animals, and volcanoes naturally
emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Ocean–atmosphere
exchange is responsible for 42.84% of all naturally produced Overview of renewable energy options
­CO2 emissions, followed by plant and animal respiration
at 28.56% and volcanic eruptions at 0.03% (Edmonds et al. Solar energy
2015).
Choosing environmentally sustainable energy sources is The most obtainable renewable energy source is solar energy.
crucial for the future of the world. This viewpoint empha- The sun radiates solar energy at a rate of 3.8*1023 kW, from
sizes the need to consider eco-friendly renewable energy which the Earth captures roughly 1.8*1014 kW (Panwar et al.
sources, including solar, wind, hydro-energy, geothermal, 2011). They receives solar energy in a range of methods,
and biomass. Due to the significant reliance on fossil fuels as which would include sunlight and warmth. This energy dis-
energy sources for electricity generation, increasing the use sipates during transit due to cloud absorption, reflection,
of electricity to reduce ­CO2 emissions through the electrifi- and dispersion. Solar energy, which is readily accessible
cation of technology confronts significant obstacles in many and has a limitless energy supply, has been demonstrated
nations and areas worldwide (see Fig. 2) (Logan et al. 2020). through research to be capable of meeting the world's energy
Therefore, to support that deficiency, renewable energy must demands (Roy and Botte 2018). It has consistent and increas-
be implemented. It is crucial to comprehend the advantages ing output efficiency compared to other energy sources,
of renewable energy and the drawbacks that might result making it a viable energy option around the globe (Roy
from improper utilization. Numerous key climate control et al. 2015). The dispersion and strength of solar irradiance
treaties being negotiated globally, such as the Conference are two crucial factors that impact the performance of the
of the Parties—27 (COP 27), RREDA, and the EEG Act solar PV sector. These two elements vary widely between
2023, are also discussed along with the current state of this countries. With more sunshine each year than other sub-
industry. tropical countries, rising Asian countries receive the most
For this reason, renewable energy sources are essential solar radiation, according to data on solar irradiation. It is
for achieving sustainable development and mitigating cli- important to note that much solar radiation is wasted (Datta
mate change. While they offer numerous environmental et al. 2023; Bera et al. 2022).
benefits compared to fossil fuels, it is crucial to recognize The mechanism to convert solar energy from the sun
that no energy source is entire without impact. This review to electrical energy is done directly without needing a

Fig. 2  Energy (EJ) in electric-

ity generated (e) and fossil
fuel energy (FFE) used for
electricity generation calcu-
lated for selected countries
(United States and China) or
regions (ME, Middle East; EU,
European Union). The average
daily energy use normalized by
the population of these areas is
shown for the electricity energy
(De) and the primary energy
used for electricity generation,
considering only fossil fuels
(Dff). (Logan et al. 2020).
(Reproduce with permission)

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

conversion medium or interface. The device used for this environmental conditions, particularly the amount of sun-
conversion is called a photovoltaic cell (PV) (Kannan and shine, cloud cover, and wind speed, have a crucial role in
Vakeesan 2016). In solar photovoltaic, monocrystalline sili- solar panel efficacy (Hernandez et al. 2014). Third, because
con, polycrystalline silicon, microcrystalline silicon, copper of their low percentages of educational standards, rural
indium diselenide, and cadmium telluride are often used as populations worldwide still need to be made more aware of
semiconductors. The idea behind how this device works is the potential advantages of the solar business. Fourth, other
that electrons are propelled from a lower energy level to potential variables and competition prevent solar energy
a higher energy state concerning the radiation influx from projects from progressing swiftly (Kannan and Vakeesan
natural light. The semiconductor will then experience sev- 2016). Fifth, manufacturers encounter challenges in devel-
eral holes and liberate electrons due to this activation, pro- oping economical and high-performance solar cells even if
ducing electricity (Green 2002). Solar energy is transformed the solar industry has no direct adverse effect on the atmos-
into electric power using PV technology, concentrating solar phere. The search for high-quality semiconductor materials,
thermal power (CSP) (see Fig. 3), and concentrating pho- adaptable band-gap choices, effective device designs, and
tovoltaic technology (CVT) in addition (Weinstein et al. environmentally friendly solutions proves intricate. Existing
2015). However, grid systems are fed with the current pro- III-V multi-junction solar cells on substrates such as GaAs
duced by photovoltaic technology for greater efficiency. Grid and Ge possess limitations in capturing solar wavelengths
field electrical systems make up about 90% of photovoltaic effectively. Environmental concerns and substrate costs are
energy's potential to generate current. Grid area insulation also issues (Li 2011).
can be built on the building's roof or is ground mounted as a Sixth, the production of solar energy is not constant. As
technique to increase the effectiveness of the energy output a result, it is crucial to incorporate more energy sources into
produced by the PV system [4]. Many researches are still this transmission line to guarantee a steady supply. Seventh,
going on to improve the quality of solar cells such as reduc- the PV sector possesses some unintended adverse effects
ing their cost of manufacture, increasing their efficiency, on the environment. For improved efficiency, solar col-
stability, and many more. lectors can, for instance, kill insects and birds when they
In addition to CSP, CVT, and PV modules, solar energy are exposed to a concentrated sunlight beam (Moyez et al.
has many related applications. These include rooftop pho- 2016). Lastly, certain hazardous substances are present in
tovoltaics for building integration, crop irrigation, heating the heat exchangers in the collectors. Turbine generators are
and cooling, greenhouses, bioremediation, salt reduction, cleaned and kept cold with water to increase their efficiency.
and many space applications (Kannan and Vakeesan 2016). This causes water to be wasted, and wastewater discharge
Apart from all these advantages and the fact that solar causes water contamination. The remaining 30% of energy
energy is the most popular form of renewable energy, it still intensity gains between now and 2050 can be attributed to
has some drawbacks. First, producing and installing solar renewables. For example, 100% efficient solar PV and wind
photovoltaic technology is complex, costly, and techni- power can replace 30–40% efficient coal power generation
cally sophisticated (Ciarreta et al. 2014). Second, various

Fig. 3  Concentrating Solar

Power Plant: (1) Concentrator,
(2) Receiver, (3) Heat-transfer
fluid, (4) Thermal energy stor-
age, (5) Heat engine (Weinstein
et al. 2015). [Reprinted with
permission]

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Fig. 4  Energy intensity by

factor in the Reference Case
and Remap, 2050. (Gielen
et al. 2019) (Reproduced with
permission)

or renewables-based electrification can be used for cooking industrialized nations for the elevated greenhouse gas emis-
and heating (see Fig. 4). sions in the atmosphere (Esteban et al. 2011; Poulopoulos
Even though the solar business faces these develop- 2016). Regarding the approaches used for design, wind tur-
ment obstacles, much research is being done to lessen their bine technology has a distinct technological identity and spe-
influence on proportions appropriate for greater production cific requirements. With a theoretical potential of between
efficiency. 20,000*106 and 50,000*106 MWh annually, onshore wind
energy has a huge advantage over the present total annual
Wind energy worldwide power consumption of just about 15,000*106
MWh (Henderson et al. 2002).
Wind energy, primarily through onshore installations, is the As depicted in Fig. 5, wind energy is growing at a fast
prevailing form of renewable power. This choice is substan- rate. It is developing more than other renewable and non-
tiated by the advanced technical maturity of wind energy renewable resources apart from hydro-energy, as the origin
concerning other renewables and abundant wind resources. and way of progression in research and development differ
These factors undeniably support the preferential advance- from other energy sources (International Renewable capac-
ment of wind energy. Moreover, this decision aligns with ity statistics 2022 (IRENA)). Current calculation places the
the imperative of fulfilling the Kyoto Protocol commitments worldwide offshore resource at approximately 37,000 TWh.
in Europe, which underscores the greater responsibility of The relevance of wind energy in comparison to other green

Fig. 5  World wind energy

consumption trend (Data from
International Renewable Energy
Agency (IRENA), Renewable
capacity statistics 2022)

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Table 1  Levelized cost of different power generation technologies technologies can be explained by resource accessibility as
(Breeze 2007) well as technological prowess in terms of cost-effectiveness.
Levelized Regarding the first, it is evident that geothermal, small-
cost ($/ scale hydro-energy and biomass are far less readily avail-
MWh) able than wind, solar, wave, and current energy. Regarding
Nuclear 30–74 the second, wind energy has a higher level of maturity than
Large hydro-energy station 40–80* other energy sources like solar, wave, and currents because
Small hydro-energy station 80–180* it has been employed for many different economic activities,
Onshore wind 60–90 such as sailing, irrigation, milling, etc., from ancient times.
Offshore wind 120 From Table 1, it is also clear that the levelized cost of both
Biomass 70–170 onshore and offshore wind energy is significantly lower than
Solar photovoltaic 180–230 any other renewable and non-renewable resource, and that
CSP 150–170 cost will likely continue to fall as technology advances (see
Tidal power 80–230 Table 2).
Wave power 100–180 This wind energy has several environmental impacts.
For example, land use and landscape settings will change
*The cost of generating drops to $ 0.01/MWh or less once loans are due to wind energy development. This will influence the
repaid
local biological system, the Earth’s ecosystem, and the liv-
ing environment, including surface climate, noise pollution,
Table 2  Future levelized cost of different technologies (National bird and bat mortality, and GHG emissions. Recognizing
Renewable Energy Laboratory, US, 2008) these effects will assist in alleviating them and in devel-
Year → 2010 2020 2030 oping strategies for renewable energy sources (Wang and
Cost ($/MWh) ↓ Wang 2015). The inability to recycle the materials needed
to make turbine blades is another way wind energy harms
Onshore wind (class 3) 86 76 70
the environment. The National Renewable Energy Labora-
Onshore wind (class 4) 77 68 64
tory (NREL) investigators developed a method for producing
Onshore wind (class 6) 67 60 57
wind turbine blades using a thermoplastic resin technology
Offshore wind (class 4) 118 101 91
that enables recovery and lowers the power needed to pro-
Offshore wind (class 6) 104 90 82
duce these blades (U.S. Energy Information Administration
Open-cycle gas turbine 196 204 223
(EIA). December 27, 2022). In the early days, many avian
Combined cycle gas turbine 74 79 94
species died due to collisions on these blades (0.02–0.6 col-
New supercritical coal 68 69 71
lisions per turbine per year). With new technology and a
Integrated gasification combined cycle 91 92 93
regulated way of monitoring, collisions have been reduced
Nuclear 89 86 86
to a great extent (Anderson et al. 1999). GHG emissions are

Fig. 6  GHG emissions associ-

ated with wind energy (Wang
and Wang 2015)

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

decreased if wind power replaces fossil fuels as a source of to the hydrogeological environment, we can produce super-
energy. Few GHGs are, however, also released (see Fig. 6), heated steam, steam combined with water, or hot water just
with the majority of these being produced by cement and for industrial purposes. Geothermometers measure the tem-
steel production for wind turbine foundations (Wang and perature of the geothermal wells. The exploration and survey
Wang 2015). Considering all the advantages and disadvan- are carried out by different processes such as seismic sur-
tages and undergoing regulations, wind energy is the clean- veys, gravity surveys, magnetic surveys, electro-resistivity
est form of renewable energy. surveys, electromagnetic surveys, and thermal-measurement
surveys. The explored wells are then classified into two cate-
Hydro‑energy gories depending upon the temperature of the fluid explored,
namely high-temperature well (temperature > 150 °C) and
Since the Roman Empire, water has been employed as a low-temperature well (temperature < 150 °C) (Barbier 2002).
source of energy. Hydro-energy is produced at reservoirs and Geothermal energy is used in different applications apart
other regions where water flows down from an elevation or from direct use to produce electricity (see Fig. 7), some of
along coastlines with significant tidal swings (Bakis 2007). which are geothermal heat pumps, space heating, green-
The reservoirs, which can hold 6000 ­km3 of water, currently house heating, aquaculture pond heating, agricultural drying,
cover nearly 500,000 k­ m2 of land. Small but discernible industrial uses, bathing and swimming, cooling/ snow melt-
changes have happened worldwide due to the distribution ing, and some other miscellaneous purposes (see Table 3)
of fresh water in the reservoirs. With a total installed capac- (Lund and Toth 2021).
ity of 640,000 MW (or 26% of theoretical potential), hydro- Comparing geothermal energy to renewable sources like
energy accounts for roughly 20% of the world's electrical solar, wind, and hydro-energy has benefits and drawbacks.
supply, providing an estimated 2380 TWh/year (Demirbas The one big benefit of geothermal energy is its dependabil-
2005). Hydro-energy produces more than 99% of the elec- ity. Secondly, geothermal energy has a higher efficiency than
tricity in Norway and 75% in New Zealand (Bakis 2007). solar and wind energy. Literature also highlights that geo-
More than 97% of the electricity produced from renewable thermal plants have a capacity factor of 70–80%, whereas
sources is provided by it. Less than 3% of electricity is pro- wind and solar plants have a capacity factor of 16–30%
duced by other sources, such as solar, geothermal, biomass, (Kulasekara and Seynulabdeen 2019). The main disadvan-
and wind. tage of geothermal energy is the lack of geographic locations
The main benefits of using hydro-energy are that it is where the geothermal wells can be set up for exploitation.
clean because no fuel is burned, the water needed to run Secondly, geothermal exploitation is costly, and setting up
the power plant is free from pollution, and it is sustainable drills and construction of plants demands a lot of capital
because rainwater replenishes the reservoir (Bakis 2007). investment. Thirdly, drilling into geothermal wells causes
Fuel-based power plants have the following significant the tectonic plates to shift, thus resulting in surface instabil-
drawbacks. Firstly, they consume precious and finite natu- ity (Lund and Toth 2021).
ral resources. Secondly, they have a high pollution output Considering all the pros and cons of geothermal energy,
(Perera 2017). Thirdly, businesses must drill wells or exca- it is estimated that by 2030, assuming the levelized energy
vate the ground to obtain coal, oil, and gas. Lastly, waste cost of € 100/MWh, the economic potential could reach 34
disposal issues exist for nuclear power facilities. TWh or 1% of the projected total electricity production in
the EU (Van Wees et al. 2013). The same authors predicted
Geothermal energy the potential growth to reach 2570 TWh in 2050. This is
primarily because of economies of scale and novel ideas
The energy stored as heat deep within the earth is known as (Miranda-Barbosa et al. 2017).
geothermal energy, and the reason for this heat's creation is
related to our planet's internal structure. However, it is une- Biomass energy
venly distributed, infrequently concentrated, and frequently
found at depths that preclude industrial application (Bar- Recent resource depletion and environmental degradation
bier 2002). The geothermal gradient, which averages 30 °C/ have made the reliance of modern civilizations on fossil
km of depth, makes us aware of it since rocks are hotter fuels extremely difficult (Rawindran et al. 2022). Thus,
the deeper they are in the Earth. The Earth's crust contains biomass energy can be considered an alternative source of
vast amounts of heat, up to 300 °C (1,300°F), harnessed by fuel. The topic of biomass energy has gained traction in the
geothermal energy beneath the Earth's surface. The key to renewable energy community. It is made up of solid wastes,
harnessing this heat is having a carrier transfer it toward human sewage, food processing waste, and energy crops,
accessible depths beneath the surface. These are essential as well as leftovers from forests, timber, and crops (Dogan
parts of most geothermal fields (Barbier 2002). According and Inglesi-Lotz 2017; Zafar et al. 2021). The biofuels are

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Fig. 7  Geothermal energy direct

use increased exponentially
from 1995 to 2020 (Lund and
Toth 2021)

Table 3  Summary of different System Energy consumption (TJ/year)

applications of geothermal
energy (Lund and Toth 2021). 2020 2015 2010 2005 2000 1995
[Reprinted with Permission]
Geothermal heat pumps 599,981 326,848 200,149 87,503 23,275 14,617
Space heating 162,979 88,668 63,025 55,256 42,926 38,230
Greenhouse heating 35,826 29,038 23,264 20,661 17,864 15,742
Aquaculture pond heating 13,573 11,953 11,521 10,976 11,733 13,493
Agricultural drying 3529 2030 1635 2013 1038 1124
Industrial uses 16,390 10,454 11,745 10,868 10,220 10,120
Bathing and swimming 184,070 119,611 109,410 83,018 79,546 15,742
Cooling/snow melting 2589 2596 2126 2032 1063 1124
Miscellaneous 1950 1440 955 1045 3034 2249
Total 1,020,887 592,638 423,830 273,372 190,699 190,699
% overall growth over five years 72.3 39.8 55.0 43.4 69.6 –

categorized into different generations: first generation, sec- rising (Mong et al. 2022; Liew et al. 2023). Only 50% of the
ond, and third generation (Datta et al. 2019). All these gen- sludge produced by China's estimated 5476 wastewater treat-
erations have their advantages and limitations, which are ment facilities, which yearly produce roughly 39.04 million
listed in the Table 4. tons, gets treated (Mong et al. 2022; Weiet al. 2020). To cater
Sewage sludge causes a lot of problems for society. Due to the nuisance of sewage sludge in recent years, many articles
to urbanization and fast population expansion, the amount have been published stating different methods of dealing such
of sewage sludge produced each year has been dramatically as stated in C.S. Liew et al. 2023, which has come up with a

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Table 4  Advantages and limitations of different generations of biofuels

Sl. no. Generations of biofuels Advantages References

1 1st generation Opening new market opportunities and expanding agricul- Datta et al. (2019)
tural products
Enlarging the socioeconomic conditions
Contributing to the multifunctionality of the agricultural
sector
2 2nd generation Uses non-food feedstock Datta et al. (2019), Fernando et al. (2006)
There are no limitations on blending
More environmentally friendly
Fewer GHG emissions
Fewer land requirements
3 3rd generation Feedstocks (algae) have the ability to grow every year Datta et al. (2019), Behera et al. (2015)
High oil productivity
Low water consumption
No herbicides or pesticides are needed
High expansion potential
Biodegradable
Good yield per acre
Limitations
4 1st generation Increased food prices Datta et al. (2019), Perimenis et al. (2011)
A depressing biodiversity
Requires lots of land for cultivation
Small profit margins compared to fossil fuels
5 2nd generation Due to high production costs, cannot be produced on a Datta et al. (2019)
commercial scale
Inadequate harvesting, storage, and transport system
In need of a clear policy framework
6 3rd generation Algae require more energy, energy input, water, nitrogen, Datta et al. (2019), Cuellar-Bermudez et al. (2015)
and phosphorus to cultivate than traditional crops

revolutionary process of low-temperature thermal pretreated impact the energy system's dependability and performance
sewage sludge for feeding of black soldier fly (Hermetia illu- (Bachner 2016; Cronin et al. 2018). The vulnerability of the
cens) larvae to make different forms of biodiesels and biofuels. energy industry was initially discussed in terms of demand,
Additionally, Liew et al. 2023 have stated using fungal fermen- but an increasing number of studies are also examining
tation of palm kernel by using black soldier fly for producing the effects on supply (Bachner 2016). Transmission lines
proteins and biodiesels. All these recent and revolutionary and other regions can also impact the energy sector's value
works in the field of biomass energy make the use of biomass chain (Schaeffer et al. 2012). Since its principal resource is
energy in the place of fossil fuels a justifiable one. strongly tied to climatic elements like precipitation, tempera-
ture, irradiation, or wind, most research in the energy indus-
try focuses on renewable generation (Cuba 2008). Hydro-
Challenges and impacts of renewable energy power plants and any other production facility that
energy: climate and environment uses water in any way, such as thermal generation or even
carbon capture and storage, are significantly impacted by the
Climate change availability of water (Byers et al. 2016; Koch et al. 2015).

A low-carbon future will depend heavily on renewable Environmental impacts

energy. The share of renewable energy in final energy
consumption must rise from 19% in 2017 to 65% by 2050 Being considered a replacement for fossil fuels and other
to achieve the 2 °C climate goal (International Renew- conventional energy resources, the clean, sustainable, and
able capacity statistics 2019 (IRENA)). The proportion of most profitable form of energy—"renewable energy” still
renewables in power production should be over 85% by that has some significant environmental impacts, and sometimes
time, up from an expected 25% in 2017 (Solaun and Cerdá it is more than conventional energy resources.
2019). One of the difficulties renewable energy sources will Firstly, solar energy has contributed most to the
confront is the physical effects of climate change, which energy field in recent years, with an installed capacity of

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

approximately 98 GW since 2017 (Rabaia et al. 2021). But Secondly, consider wind energy. Compared to other
having many benefits to its name, solar energy has many renewable and conventional energy resources, wind energy
environmental impacts. Throughout the utility-scale CSP has fewer environmental impacts (Sayed et al. 2021). Wind
systems' lifetime, several direct environmental risks and energy's primary environmental effects are noise pollution,
impacts are possible, including water use, air pollution, visible deterioration, regional temperature fluctuations, and
implications on biodiversity, the need to utilize the land for electromagnetic interference. Concerns over other issues
animals, visual and possibly audible impacts, utilization of regarding the environmental impacts of wind energy, such
resources and energy, as well as the risk of fires, especially as biosystem disturbances or bird, bat, and marine species
when synthetic oil is used as a heat transfer fluid (Rabaia safety, are raising ecological challenges (Sayed et al. (2021).
et al. 2021). Commonly necessary landscape modifications Due to the revolution of the wind turbine blades, it produces
include clearing vegetation, leveling the ground, compact- an unpleasant noise of around 100 Hz, which causes noise
ing the soil, removing unnecessary roads, and building the pollution. The larger the blades are, the more unpleasant
major access routes. This may result in higher erosion of the the sound is (Dhar et al. 2020). The huge structure and the
topsoil or even deeper depths, an increase in local streams' color and contrast disparity of the windmills make them dif-
turbidity or sediment load, a decrease in the ability of pre- ficult to blend with the background scenery, and the shadow
cipitation and air pollutants to be cleaned up by filters, a causes a flickering effect on the eyes of the humans, called
reduction in groundwater recharge, and a greater chance the disco—effect (Möller 2006). Wind farms near any radio
of flooding (Rabaia et al. 2021). The vast water consump- station cause the radio signals to degrade as the rotating
tion of CSP is used in cooling procedures estimated to be blades coincide with the path of the radio waves (Randhawa
3100–3800 L/MWh, which is more than 60% of the water and Rudd 2009).
used for cooling purposes in conventional purposes (Rabaia Thirdly, considering the hydro-energy. The possible envi-
et al. 2021). Consequently, it is suggested that these very ronmental impacts of hydro-energy are as follows (Rabaiaet
water-intensive power plants be located near flowing water al. 2021):
sources and recycle the water intake in the best way pos-
sible (Sayed et al. (2021). The CSP components also have • River flow patterns and courses can be altered and
greenhouse gas emissions emitted from different parts of the diverted.
CSP (see Fig. 8). • Translocation of people and land animals.

Fig. 8  GHG emissions of

PV system's components for
100 years (Rabaia et al. 2021).
[Reprinted with permission]

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

• Retention of soil nutrients and sediment in the reservoir Nevertheless, an analysis by Harris et al. found that
behind the dams. switching from cultivable to second-generation bioenergy
• Growth of downstream aquatic weeds. crops can only slightly reduce C­ O2 emissions, while switch-
• Interrupt the movement of aquatic creatures upstream and ing from native grassland to first-generation bioenergy crops
downstream. and short rotation coppice (SRC) showed an apparent spike.
• Modifications to downstream water quality. Therefore, while addressing the reduction of C ­ O2 emissions,
• For the construction of the dam, natural woodlands were it is important and vital to consider suitable bioenergy crop
cut down. kinds and cultivation practices (Adedeji et al. 2023). For a
• Furthermore, transboundary hydropower projects better overall understanding, Table 6 highlights the benefits
disturb international peace and raise political stress and drawbacks of the environmental implications of the vari-
between countries sharing the basin. The Orange– ous renewable energy sources described.
Senqu, Aral Sea, Rhine, Columbia, La-Plata, and the
Nile Basin have water agreement conflicts (Osman
et al. 2022). There have been several causes regard- Current national and international status
ing the arousal of conflicts. Some conflicts have been of renewable energy production
resolved, but some are still in a very dormant situ-
ation. Even the slightest violation triggers political COP 26 and COP 28 are two important climate change
unrest between countries, which can lead to war if combating conferences that are part of the United Nations
the situation worsens. Table 5 lists the reasons for Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
conflicts, countries involved, and the resolution of the process. While COP 26 was held in 2021 at the SEC Cen-
conflicts. tre in Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom, and COP28
will be held in 2023 in Dubai. One of the key outcomes
Geothermal energy has many environmental impacts of COP 26 was the adoption of the Glasgow Climate Pact,
regarding land use, solid waste, high water demand, sur- which outlines a series of measures that countries will
face disturbance, offensive odor, noise pollution, thermal take to accelerate action on climate change. Each nation
pollution, and wastewater. Variations in fluid pressure in a must make this decision because they have diverse inter-
stressed Earth formation and fluid movement in a geother- nal political, social, and economic environments (IMF/
mal area can both lead to rock fracture. The extraction facil- OECD Report 2022). These particularities lead to various
ity's structure and operation is based on the capacity or size policy stances (e.g., carbon pricing, emission rate stand-
of the plant and the field. Water is the most accessible and ards, investment concessions, technology subsidies, etc.).
commonly utilized fluid for geothermal energy extraction, The 2023 UN Climate Change Conference (COP
yet a sizeable amount leaks or is squandered in the under- 28) will be held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, from
ground field. Typical gases and volatile chemicals in the November 30 to December 12, 2023. It will be the 28th
fluid extracted from geothermal sources include hydrogen United Nations Climate Change conference. At COP 28,
sulfide. It is usual for the fluid from geothermal fields to countries will be expected to ramp up their climate action
contain elements of the soil or formation, such as carbonate/ plans and commit to even more ambitious targets to limit
sulfate salts, silica, and silicate salts, which precipitate upon global warming to 1.5OC above preindustrial levels. The
a drop in temperature and build up as solid waste, necessi- conference is expected to address issues related to climate
tating waste disposal management. When water is utilized finance, adaptation, and the shift to a reduced-carbon soci-
as a heat transfer fluid, the wastewater is frequently filled ety (Vasal 2022). These ambitious goals signal a growing
with impurities introduced while processing and minerals global commitment to tackling climate change and reduc-
from the soil or sedimentation, which can harm the environ- ing the risk of catastrophic climate impacts. For com-
ment when discharged into water bodies (Rabaia et al. 2021). parison and further benefits, we will look into the energy
Lastly, the consequences of bioenergy are expected to be status of major renewables exploiting countries—India,
crucial for energy stability, and the rising amount of bioen- China, Russia, and Germany.
ergy raw materials may have a negative impact on the envi-
ronment. For instance, growing switchgrass or Miscanthus
on weak-productive soil in the Mississippi River Basin India
instead of native grass can reduce water output, drainage,
and river flows while increasing evapotranspiration (ET) and India is making significant progress in renewable energy
loss of nutrients (Wu et al. 2018). By switching to biofuels production, with ambitious targets and initiatives to
instead of fossil fuels, ­CO2 emissions can be reduced by up increase the share of renewables in the country's energy
to 29 million tons ­CO2-eq/year (Liu et al 2017). mix. A significant step in decongesting the system was

13
 Table 5  Transboundary conflicts and resolution of conflicts:
River Basin Countries involved Reason of conflict Method of resolution References

Orange–Senqu South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho Geographical limits separating Namibia and South An agreement was made in 2000 by South Africa, Osman et al. (2022)
Africa Namibia, Lesotho, and Botswana to form the
Orange-Senqu River Commission
Aral Sea Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, A water shortage, Soviet-era methods of allocat- A water allocation agreement was signed in 1992 Osman et al. (2022)
Afghanistan, China, Pakistan ing water, and problems with sharing water, along with the creation of the interstate commis-
such as splitting basin management expenses sion for water coordination. The international
fund for safeguarding the Aral Sea and the inter-
state council for the Aral Sea were established
in 1993. These two entities were combined into
one in 1997
Rhine Germany, Switzerland, France, Belgium, Nether- Because the most significant chemical manu- Since its founding in 1815, the Central Com- Osman et al. (2022)
lands, Luxembourg, Austria, Liechtenstein, Italy facturing factories are located along the Rhine mission for Rhine Navigation has existed. To
River, there are issues with navigation and water safeguard the Rhine against pollution, an inter-
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

pollution national commission was founded in 1950. 1970

the International Commission for the Hydrology
of the Rhine Basin was founded. Signed in 1976
was a treaty to safeguard the Rhine from pollu-
tion caused by chemicals and chlorides
Columbia USA, Canada The Libby dam in the United States and the With the creation of the Bonneville Power Admin- Osman et al. (2022)
McNaughton proposal for hydropower in istration and the US Army Corps of Engineers,
Canada, which involved diverting a portion of the Columbia River Treaty was signed in 1964
the Columbia River into the Fraser River, were to ensure equitable benefit sharing from hydro-
built in the 1950s power and flood management
La-Plata Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Uruguay There was conflict between Brazil and Paraguay The Argentinean La-Plata basin countries signed Osman et al. (2022)
for control of the Guairá Falls, or "the land the La-Plata basin pact in 1969, and in 1973
where the Itaipu dam currently exists." they established an interstate commission to
coordinate their efforts. The 1969 multilateral
agreement resulted in several bilateral accords
between the sharing nations and hydropower
projects
Nile Burundi, D.R. Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, The hydro-political disputes regarding the share The Nile controversy is still not resolved yet. Akrofi et al. (2022)
Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Sudan, South Sudan, ratio of water from the Nile. The colonial pow- But different authors have come with their
Tanzania ers and the Egyptian government signed illegal own resolving methods. The most suggested
historic water agreements. The situation wors- method among them is to set an international
ened due to the building of the GERD without law that issues a mandatory water usage ratio to
prior notice and consultation with downstream different countries according to their population
countries, i.e., Egypt and Sudan and demand, so that no country exploits water
availability

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Table 6  All the possible advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy types
Sl. no. Renewable energy types Advantages References

1 Solar It is a clean and renewable energy source, which Adedeji et al. (2023), Lakatos et al. (2011), Sharma
means it produces no greenhouse gases or pollut- et al. (2015), Sivaram et al. (2018)
ants
It can be used to generate electricity in remote areas
where grid electricity is not available
It requires little maintenance and has a long lifespan
It can save homeowners money on their electricity
bills and even earn them money through net meter-
ing programs such as Solar Renewable Energy
Credits (SRECs)
It can be integrated into building design, such as
using solar panels on roofs, to reduce the environ-
mental impact of buildings
Safer than traditional electric current
2 Wind It is a clean and renewable energy source, which Ferguson (2008), Apunda and Nyangoye (2018), Hoen
means it produces no greenhouse gases or pollut- et al. (2019)
ants
It is one of the most cost-effective renewable energy
sources, with costs declining rapidly in recent years
It can be used to generate electricity in remote areas
where grid electricity is not available
It has a low operating cost and requires little main-
tenance
It can be integrated into rural landscapes without
causing significant environmental impact
3 Hydro-energy It is a clean and renewable energy source, producing Breeze (2019)
no greenhouse gases or pollutants
It is highly efficient, with most of the energy in the
water converted into electricity
It is a reliable energy source as long as there is a
consistent water supply
It can be used for multiple purposes, such as irriga-
tion, flood control, recreation, and generating
electricity
It can store energy by pumping water to a higher
elevation when electricity is abundant and releasing
it when demand is high
Lakes formed due building of dams attracting more
tourists for leisure activities
4 Geothermal It is a clean and renewable energy source, which Hyder (2023)
means it produces no greenhouse gases or pollut-
ants
It is highly efficient and can provide a constant
source of energy
It has a small land footprint, as geothermal power
plants can be built underground
It can be used for heating, cooling, and generating
electricity
It can be used in remote areas where grid electricity
is not available
5 Biomass It is a renewable energy source, as biomass can be Marsh (2022)
grown and harvested
It can be used to generate electricity and heat
It can provide a local energy source, as it can be
grown and processed locally
It can reduce waste, as biomass can be made from
waste products such as agricultural residues and
municipal waste
It can provide economic benefits to rural communi-
ties, creating jobs in agriculture and forestry
It is less expensive than fossil fuels

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Table 6  (continued)
Sl. no. Renewable energy types Advantages References

Disadvantages
6 Solar Solar energy production is dependent on weather Lakatos et al. (2011), Sharma et al. (2015), Sivaram
conditions. Cloudy and rainy days reduce the effi- et al. (2018)
ciency of solar panels
The installation cost of solar panels is relatively high,
which can hinder individuals or businesses from
adopting this technology
Large-scale solar farms require a considerable
amount of land, which can have environmental
impacts on the surrounding ecosystem
Solar PVs use a variety of dangerous and poisonous
chemicals, some of which have an indirect negative
impact on the environment
7 Wind Wind turbines can produce a significant amount of Ferguson (2008), Apunda and Nyangoye (2018), Hoen
noise, which can be a nuisance for people living in et al. (2019)
the vicinity
Wind turbines have been known to cause bird and bat
mortality, especially during migration seasons
Like solar energy, wind energy production is depend-
ent on weather conditions. Low wind speed can
reduce the efficiency of wind turbines
8 Hydro-energy Dams can have significant environmental impacts, Breeze (2019)
such as habitat destruction, alteration of river eco-
systems, and flooding
Dams require regular maintenance, which can be
costly
Dams can only be constructed in areas with suitable
geography and hydrological conditions
The weather and precipitation patterns ultimately
determine how reliable the electricity supply is
The higher elevated the dam is built, the higher the
risk to the local life and the more susceptible it
is to floods. The “Banqiao Dam Failure” incident
claimed the lives of 171,000 people
9 Geothermal Like solar and wind energy, the installation costs of Hyder (2023)
geothermal systems can be high, discouraging indi-
viduals or businesses from adopting this technology
Geothermal energy production is limited to areas
with suitable geology and underground heat
sources
Some geothermal power plants use a significant
amount of water, which can negatively impact local
water resources
Earthquakes can be sparked by geothermal energy
10 Biomass Biomass production can require significant land use, Marsh (2022)
which can have environmental impacts
Burning biomass can produce air pollutants that can
negatively impact human health and the environ-
ment
The availability and sustainability of biomass feed-
stock can be a significant barrier to the widespread
adoption of this technology
It can lead to deforestation
Is not as efficient as fossil fuels

taken in 2010 when the CERC introduced the "smart renewable energy capacity by 2030, which includes 280
transmission tariff," which opened up fresh possibilities GW of solar energy, 140 GW of wind energy, and 60 GW
for integrating renewable energy sources (Bardhanet al. of hydro-energy. India also committed to reducing its car-
2019). At COP 26, India pledged to achieve 500 GW of bon intensity by 45% from 2005 to 2030 and achieving

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

net-zero emissions by 2070 (Ministry of New and Renew- Russia

able Energy, "Renewable Energy in India," 2022). India
is fourth in the world with a perspective of total renew- The Russian government intends to boost the proportion of
able energy scope (including large hydro), wind power renewable energy sources ten times over the next 20 years,
capacity, and solar power capacity (according to REN21 bringing it to 10% of all installed capacity by 2040. Accord-
Renewables 2022 Global Status Report) (Gielen et al. ing to the Russia Renewable Energy Development Associa-
2019). In Union Budget 2023, renewable energy sources, tion (RREDA), the nation will need operational 438 MW
including substantial hydro-energy, are estimated to have of renewable energy production in 2023. The exact forms
a combined installed capacity of 174.53 GW, an increase of green sources that will be made available in the upcom-
of almost 128% from 2014. Solar energy dominates India's ing years have also been described in depth by RREDA.
renewable energy mix, with a total installed capacity of 645 MW of solar, 1.45 GW of wind, and 128 MW of small-
63.3 GW. Wind energy is the second-largest contributor, capacity hydro-energy plants (HPPs) will be in operation by
with a full installed capacity of 41.9 GW, followed by the conclusion of 2024 (bne IntelliNews 2023). By 2035,
biomass and small hydro with 10.2 GW and 4.93 GW, expenditures on renewable energy will total 1 trillion Rus-
respectively (Electricity Market Report 2023, IEA, Paris, sian Rubles (Proskuryakova 2022). Predictions show sub-
2023) (Korkovelos et al. 2018; IEA 2023). India pledged stantial wind and solar energy exploitable technological
a 40% share of electricity production from non-fossil feed- capability across many locations of Russia, notwithstand-
stock at COP-21 in Paris in 2015. ing early policy debate. Similar features for the assistance
of renewable energy retail buyers and sources, such as home
China businesses, were made available by the Law on Micro-
generation in 2019. The COVID-19 pandemic negatively
Between 2023 and 2025, China will contribute about 45% impacted the generation of green energy and electricity. On
of the growth in renewable power, with the EU coming in the extreme, renewable energy sources were less marketable
second place with 15% (IEA 2023). China has assumed than fossil fuels owing to low prices and declining business
worldwide leadership in adopting renewable energy, nota- and government budget revenues. However, long-term green
bly solar and wind. Emissions decreased due to the Covid- investment trends that have shown to be a lesser risk option
19 epidemic in the spring of 2020, but since then, energy have been made possible by the environmental and sustain-
usage has increased by around 6% in 2022 (Yin 2023). For ability policy objectives (Hurri 2021). According to Article
renewable energy sources to be successfully implemented in 32 of the Federal Electricity Law, the System Operator must
power systems, there has to be a rapid increase in grid and consider the General Scheme's proposals when setting up the
resilience expenditures. During the next three years, China, massive power supply chain. The equipment that ensures the
India, and Southeast Asia will contribute 70% of the rise in transport and transmission of the electricity produced by
the world's power consumption. The percentage of coal- and renovations chosen to be included in the power supply chain
gas-fired output is expected to decrease as renewable energy will benefit from creating a power sector that is favorable to
sources grow. clean energy.
Consequently, global power generation emissions will
peak in 2025 and continue to fall in C­ O2 generation during
the following years (IEA 2023). The nation produces 66% Germany
of the world's solar panels, and wind turbine makers provide
33% of the market (Helveston and Nahm 2019) 0.87.4 GW The restrictions enacted following the start of the Russia-
worth of solar panels were installed in 2022, as reported Ukraine war primarily maintain Germany's earlier promise
by the National Energy Bureau (NEB). Policies supporting to reduce carbon emissions by 2045. To alleviate clients of
renewable energy have been crucial in achieving this, par- financial pressures in the battle against the economic impact
ticularly the Made in China 2025 ten-year strategy unveiled of the COVID-19, the ministry also agreed that the charge
in 2015 (Helveston and Nahm 2019). According to the China will decrease further to 6.0 cents in 2022 (Iea. (n.d.), 2023
Electricity Council, China will have more than 2800 GW Germany's Renewables Energy Act). By 2030, Berlin aims
of operational power by 2023, more than half of which— to generate 80% of its power from wind and solar. This ambi-
nearly 1500 GW—will come from renewable sources. While tion has grown more urgent since a decline in Russian fossil
wind and solar are predicted to reach 430 GW and 490 GW, fuel shipments to Germany last year (Geres et al. 2023).
respectively, in 2023, hydro is anticipated to reach 420 GW The Federal Cabinet approved the EEG Act 2023. The Sub-
(ENER Data 2023). stitute Power Plant Standby Act provides temporary insur-
ance if there is an extreme fuel crisis for heat generation
and industries this winter. It will go into effect on March

13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

31, 2024 (Geres et al. 2023). Aside from allowing fuel pro- • Geothermal—Iceland, New Zealand, Hungary, Turkey,
viders to pass on price inflation to their consumers above and Japan.
what is typically permitted by existing contracts, the bill
also offers additional features. But this is solely permitted The effect of renewable energy on economic growth
with the approval of the Federal Network Agency, which for sustainable development can vary depending on each
oversees the fuel and electrical lines, and only under accept- country's specific context and policies. Here is an over-
able bounds. Both the energy price emergency and the fuel view of how renewable energy has impacted economic
supply issue are actual, and they will seriously influence growth in India, China, Russia, and Germany, their energy
both business and the everyday routines of ordinary Europe- production status, and how far they are to reach their pro-
ans. The current situation may not be as serious if Germany duction goal (Bhuiyan et al. 2022).
and other European nations had accelerated the adoption
of renewable energy sources and migrated from using gas • India: India has been actively promoting renewable
for heating and commercial use in 2023 (Iea. (n.d.), 2023 energy sources, such as solar and wind power, to reduce
Germany's Renewables Energy Act). its carbon footprint, improve energy security, and foster
economic growth. Deploying renewable energy infra-
structure has led to various economic benefits, includ-
Effect of renewable energy on economic ing job creation, attracting investments, and reducing
growth the import bill for fossil fuels. The "Make in India"
initiative has also encouraged the domestic produc-
The relationship between renewable energy and eco- tion of renewable energy equipment, contributing to
nomic growth is complex and multifaceted. While there the growth of the manufacturing sector. The expan-
is a growing body of evidence suggesting that renewable sion of the renewable energy sector has positively
energy can have a positive impact on economic growth, influenced economic development in India. India has
it is important to note that the extent of this impact can been making significant efforts to increase its energy
vary depending on various factors, including the country's production, focusing on conventional and renewable
specific circumstances, policy frameworks, and the stage sources. India's energy goals include reducing carbon
of renewable energy development. Economic progress is emissions and expanding its renewable energy capac-
dependent on the effective use of energy. However, exces- ity. The country aims to achieve 175 GW renewable
sive fossil fuel consumption is highly polluting. Several energy capacity by 2022 and 450 GW by 2030. India
nations are attempting to boost their usage of renewable is also investing in nuclear and hydropower projects to
energy since it generates negligible greenhouse emissions. diversify its energy mix
Nevertheless, all nations, industrialized or emerging, • China: China is one of the world's largest investors in
must expand economically. Government-sponsored initia- renewable energy, with significant growth in wind,
tives through grants, tax rebates, and other concessions solar, and hydropower capacity. The country's renew-
have been the main engine for renewable energy in recent able energy sector has reduced its dependence on coal,
years. The revenue from these sources has improved as decreased air pollution, and created millions of jobs in
a result (Bhattacharya et al. 2016). Renewable energies manufacturing, installing, and maintaining renewable
are generally more economical than traditional power energy systems. China's investments in green technolo-
sources in several nations. According to a report by the gies and the export of renewable energy equipment
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century have boosted its economic growth while contributing to
(REN21), China topped the world in investments in renew- reducing greenhouse gas emissions. China has rapidly
able sources, with the United States, Japan, the United expanded its energy production, emphasizing fossil fuels
Kingdom, and Germany following. Various sources were and renewables. The country has set ambitious targets for
ranked according to their capacity per capita as follows renewable energy, reaching 1,200 GW of wind and solar
(Costantini and Martini 2010): capacity by 2030. China is also working to reduce its coal
dependency and improve energy efficiency.
• Hydro-energy—China, Brazil, Canada, the United • Russia: Russia has vast natural resources, including oil
States, and Russia. and natural gas, and has historically been a significant
• Solar PV—Germany, Italy, Belgium, Greece, and the energy exporter. While Russia has not been as aggressive
Czech Republic. in adopting renewable energy as some other countries,
• Wind power—Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Spain, and it has started to invest in wind, solar, and hydroelectric
Ireland. power projects. The impact on economic growth in Rus-
sia is more nuanced, as the country's economy relies

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

heavily on fossil fuel exports. Transitioning to renewable energy resources, PD, S, U, positive impacts of renewable
energy may face challenges, but it can provide diversifi- energy consumption, and ­CO2 emissions.
cation opportunities, reduce environmental impacts, and Additionally, it identifies two unidirectional causal links,
create jobs in the renewable energy sector. The country with GDP affecting IND and the negative effects of renew-
has not set specific renewable energy capacity goals. Rus- able energy consumption. First, there is a mutual influence
sia's primary focus has been maintaining and expanding between non-renewable resources and GDP, indicating that
its fossil fuel production and export capabilities. higher levels of non-renewable resources are associated with
• Germany: Germany is known for its "Energiewende" increased IND and GDP, and vice versa. Second, a bidirec-
policy, which aims to transition to a low-carbon, renew- tional connection exists between PD and GDP, suggesting
able energy-based economy. Deploying renewable that countries with strong economies invest in education and
energy sources like wind and solar power has created training for their citizens, ultimately leading to improved
jobs, spurred innovation, and reduced greenhouse gas services and economic expansion. Third, a two-way causal
emissions. Germany's energy transition has had a sig- association is observed between S to GDP and overall eco-
nificant economic impact, driving growth in renewable nomic growth, indicating that nations with robust economies
energy industries, technology development, and energy prioritize delivering better services to their citizens, which
efficiency sectors. The country has made significant pro- bolsters economic growth (Rahaman et al. 2023). A study
gress in expanding its renewable energy capacity, focus- on Northern Asia found that fossil fuels, such as natural gas,
ing substantially on wind and solar power. Germany aims coal, and oil-based fuels, dominate Russia's domestic energy
to phase out nuclear power and reduce its reliance on balance (Mitrova 2022).
coal. It has set various renewable energy targets, includ- Only a small fraction, approximately 17%, of Russia's
ing a goal to achieve 65% renewable electricity by 2030 electricity comes from renewable sources, the majority of
and be carbon–neutral by 2045 that being hydropower, a legacy of Soviet-era infrastructure
projects. Thermal power accounts for about 68% of electric-
The impact of renewable energy on economic growth for ity generation, while nuclear power contributes 16%. The
sustainable development depends on a country's specific cir- Russian government has set relatively modest targets for
cumstances and the policies it implements. Overall, many renewable energy, aiming for 4.5% of all electricity gen-
countries recognize the economic potential of renewable eration from renewables by 2024, which lags behind the
energy to reduce carbon emissions, enhance energy secu- figures in countries like the UK and Germany. However,
rity, and create new job opportunities in the green energy according to the International Renewable Energy Agency
sector. However, the extent and nature of these effects can (IRENA), Russia has the potential to increase the share of
differ from one country to another based on their energy renewables in its total energy consumption to around 11.3%
mix, economic structure, and policy choices. by 2030 (Irena2017 "Renewable Energy Prospects for the
A study by Rahaman et al. investigates how the utiliza- Russian Federation). Russia recognizes the global shift
tion of renewable energy impacts the economic growth of toward decarbonization and increasing use of renewables
emerging South and East Asian countries, including India as a potential threat to its hydrocarbon export revenues and
and China. The study employs a nonlinear autoregressive economic security, as highlighted in a Presidential Decree
distributed lag (NARDL) method and considers various 2017 (Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of
factors such as non-renewable energy sources, industrial May 13, 2017).
development, population concentration, and carbon emis- Nevertheless, the evolving global energy landscape and
sions. The results obtained through pooled meridian group changing dynamics in hydrocarbon demand mean that Rus-
(PMG) analysis reveal that industrialization (IND) has a sig- sia will need to adapt. Recent challenges, including eco-
nificantly positive effect on gross domestic product (GDP). nomic crises, sanctions, and an unfavorable investment
Population density (PD) also positively influences long-term climate, have led to lower GDP growth rates in Russia.
economic growth, suggesting that an increase in population Estimates suggest that, due to shifts in global markets and
density corresponds to GDP expansion (Rahaman et al. reduced demand for Russian hydrocarbons, the contribution
2023). Likewise, the service sector (S) positively contrib- of oil and gas to Russia's GDP will decrease significantly
utes to economic growth, indicating that overall GDP also from 31% in 2015 to around 13–17% by 2040. Climate-
grows as the service sector's GDP increases. Urbanization focused policies targeting greenhouse gas emissions from
(U) plays a notable role in boosting GDP, with a 1% increase hydrocarbons can substantially impact the Russian economy,
in urbanization resulting in an 85.13% GDP increase. The given its heavy reliance on hydrocarbon export revenues
study also identifies six bidirectional causal relationships (Mitrova and Melnikov 2019).
between GDP and various factors, including non-renewable The next part is a thorough analysis of research con-
ducted on Group of Seven (G7) and Next-11 (N-11) nations

13
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

to carefully examine how renewable energy technologies (Sharma et al. 2021). Results claimed that the shift to renew-
impact each nation's economy. The G7 intergovernmen- able energy is economically sensible over the foreseeable
tal organization comprises France, Germany, Italy, Japan, future, boosting environmentally conscious productivity. For
the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. At the aspects of wind, solar, biomass, geothermal, and hydro
the same time, the N-11 nations are Bangladesh, Egypt, energy, Table 7 lists the overall investment in renewable
Indonesia, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, energy by G7 nations and technologically specific ratings.
South Korea, Turkey, and Vietnam (Bhuiyan et al. 2022). A study involving N-11 countries was conducted, tak-
Researchers have attempted to connect key variables for ing into account factors like renewable energy consump-
emerging countries, including urbanization, C ­ O2 emissions, tion and control variables like IVA (Industry Value Added),
economic growth, and renewable energy and energy sources. GNE (Gross National Expenditures), TO (trade openness),
Using several statistical techniques, it has been possible to which are termed as exports and imports per GDP, and GDP
establish a bidirectional nexus between economic growth constant for economic growth (Xie et al. 2022). The find-
and capital structure. Similar studies by Armeanu et al. in ings of this experiment show that the research variables
this area demonstrated that a rise in renewable energy usage have Granger causality in both directions. Increased IVA
might be linked with a decline in environmental deteriora- boosts the use of renewable energy, which in turn helps the
tion (Armeanu et al. 2021). Due to this group of countries' economy thrive, and this benefits not just the nation's GDP
shared interest in environmental preservation, the nexus but also the livelihood of the masses. In this context, it is
above also makes sense (Amri 2017). The Arellano-Bond worth noting that minor effects of trade between nations
group model was used to investigate the interactions between on the percentage of the GDP are favorable for flourishing
environmental aspects and business expansion efficiency economies. Consequently is acknowledged that, in addition

Table 7  Overall investment of G7 nations in renewable energy (Bhuiyan et al. 2022). [Reprinted with permission, from open access journal]
Fundamental data Technology-specific scores
Sl. no. Country RECAI score Onshore wind Offshore wind Solar PV Solar CSP Geothermal Hydro

1 United States 70.2 58.6 59.4 58.1 45.8 48.9 48.0

2 United Kingdom 64.2 57.3 60.5 47.1 11.2 30.1 44.2
3 Germany 63.7 49.9 51.0 52.1 11.4 34.5 44.3
4 France 63.5 55.0 52.2 53.5 22.2 32.6 51.9
5 Japan 61.3 50.3 51.1 48.0 19.2 50.8 50.1
6 Italy 59.7 44.7 31.2 48.8 41.3 42.2 44.9
7 Canada 57.9 51.8 26.7 43.9 18.3 17.9 45.6

Table 8  Positive and negative impacts of renewables on N-11 countries (Bhuiyan et al. 2022). [Reprinted with Permission, from open access
journal]
Country Variables influenced by renewable energy system

Bangladesh Economic growth (+ve) CO2 levels (−ve) Capital inflows from abroad Domestic investment (+ve)
(+ve)
Egypt Economic growth (+ve) Not found Not found Durability of power generation
(+ve)
Iran Economic growth (+ve) Not found Overseas trade (+ve) Not found
Mexico Economic growth (+ve) Not found Not found Unified frameworks (+ve)
Nigeria Economic growth (+ve) Real-world markets (+ve) Energy saving (+ve) ↑ Not found
Pakistan Economic growth (+ve) Not found Civilization (+ve) Violence suppression (+ve)
Philippines Economic growth (+ve) Not found Climate conditions (+ve) Not found
South Korea Economic growth (+ve) Research and development indus- Climate conditions (+ve) Energy saving (+ve)
try (+ve)
Turkey Economic growth (+ve) Not found Climate conditions (+ve) Energy saving (+ve)
Vietnam Economic growth (+ve) Sustainable employment (+ve) Not found Taxes (−ve)
Indonesia Economic growth (+ve) Sustainable employment (+ve) Energy and climate conditions Research and development
(+ve) industry (+ve)

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

to the control variables, the use of renewable energy con- of 25 years (Mittal et al. 2017). According to a study
tributes significantly to economic advancement (Xie et al. by Mittal et al., building a 1 MW floating plant at the
2022). Numerous urban and rural residents in these nations Kota Barrage potentially creates 18,38,519 kWh per year,
depend on kerosene and other fossil fuels to satisfy their saves 37 million liters of water, and cuts carbon dioxide
energy demands, despite the scarcity of these renewable emissions by around 1,714 tons per year (Mittal et al.
energy sources. Nigeria, a member of the N-11 countries, is 2017).
a major supplier of fossil fuels to Africa. However, a severe • Solar power windows: Solar power windows, also
energy issue has lately arisen in this nation. Empirical data known as photovoltaic (PV) or solar windows, are a
show that changes in revenue have both sound and adverse building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) technology
effects on the use of renewable and non-renewable energy. that can generate electricity from sunlight. Solar power
The use of renewable and non-renewable energy is positively windows have several advantages over traditional solar
impacted by domestic investment. FDI has been seen to panels. For example, they can be integrated into the
increase the adoption of renewable energy sources (Adewuyi building envelope, reducing the need for additional
2020). Table 8 lists the variables that the renewable energy space to install solar panels. They also provide trans-
system impacted in the N-11 nations. parency, allowing natural light to enter the building
As a result, using renewable energy generates new job while generating electricity (Ravula and Bollapragada
opportunities and economic prospects for a nation’s resi- 2020). Certain solar cell types and other optical compo-
dents and commercial customers (Xie et al. 2022). The nents increase transparency. Light concentration tech-
market's production capacity is also increased, boosting nology improved transparency by lowering the number
economic activity and increasing government revenue. of solar cells in a window. Prisms, lenses, spray-on
Renewables may not be useful in the early stages of manu- coatings, or layers on the glass pane are used to accom-
facture in emerging nations growing economic activity, but plish the purpose. Also included and patent-protected
it is advantageous in the latter stages of production and the are cutting-edge technologies like quantum dots and
habitat. Globalization has been shown to encourage renew- photonic crystals (Ravula and Bollapragada 2020).
able energy sources in Latin American countries (Koeng- • Offshore wind turbines: On the ocean floor, where
kan et al. 2020). Therefore, it is strongly recommended that winds are higher and more reliable, offshore wind tur-
policymakers exploit globalization to decrease the prices bines may be installed as a wind energy technology.
of renewable technologies and put in place measures that Hence, per installed capacity, offshore wind power
encourage low-income families to adopt these technologies generates more electricity (Khare et al. 2020). Several
(Koengkan et al. 2020). sizable offshore wind projects, such as the world's big-
gest offshore wind farm, Hornsea Two in the UK, were
put into operation in 2021. An average home in the
Recent advances UK can be powered for 24 h by one blade rotation of a
wind turbine. The 1.3 GW offshore wind farm, which
Renewable energy empowers a range of innovative tech- has 165 wind turbines, is a significant development for
nologies that can potentially transform many sectors of the the offshore wind sector worldwide, not just in the UK.
economy. Here are some examples: • Energy-efficient buildings: Renewable energy sources,
such as solar panels and geothermal heat pumps, can
• Floating solar power plants: Floating solar power plants power energy-efficient buildings. Moreover, buildings
are an innovative technology that can be deployed on may consume the least amount of energy possible by
bodies of water, such as lakes and reservoirs (Pouran employing insulation and solar shading methods. Build-
et al. 2022). In 2017, several large-scale floating solar ings consume the second-highest amount of energy
power plants were commissioned in various parts of the after industry, according to information on energy col-
world, including India, Japan, and the United States. lected for India in 2017 from the Ministry of Statistics
Since India is a peninsular country surrounded by large and Program Implementation (Gupta and Chakraborty
bodies of water, floating PV plants as an offshore energy- 2021). By offering an optimal blend of environmentally
producing innovation have a great deal of opportunity conscious design techniques, energy-efficient machin-
(Mittal et al. 2017). The nation's first floating PV facility ery, and energy from renewable sources, an energy-effi-
in West Bengal was built in 2014. These polycrystalline cient structure strikes an equilibrium between all areas
units are grid-connected and have a surface area of 101.2 of energy usage in a building (Gupta and Chakraborty
­m2 and a power rating of 250 Wp apiece (Mittal et al. 2021).
2017). The system is anticipated to produce at least 14 • Smart grids: Smart grids are advanced electricity
MWh of power yearly and have a guaranteed lifespan networks that use renewable energy sources, energy

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

storage, and intelligent control systems to optimize and other extensive testing initiatives have seen significant
electricity use. In recent years, advances in smart grid advancements. These developments have made CSP systems
technology have made it possible to integrate renew- the cheapest solar energy in the world. They also promise
able energy sources like solar and wind into the elec- eventual cost parity with fossil fuel plants thanks to cost
tricity grid, making the grid more reliable and efficient reductions made achievable by expanding mass produc-
(Moslehi and Kumar 2010). Dynamic pricing, micro tion rates and building a string of power (Wilberforce et al.
grids, and interactions with renewable resources chal- 2017). The trough system uses linear parabolic concentrators
lenge traditional grids. Yet smart grids do a great job of to transmit solar energy down the collector's focal line to a
addressing these problems (Moslehi and Kumar 2010). receiver. The trough system may be powered by fossil fuel
In order to do this, smart grids can track, preserve, and solar energy due to its thermal properties (Ahmad et al.
and predict the dependability of their services. Power 2024). These developments have made CSP installations the
flow in the Smart Grid may be estimated and optimized most affordable source of solar energy.
using technologies like Dynamic Stochastic Optimal Wind power generating limits have been raised due to
Power Flow (DSOPF) (Momoh 2009). Thus, attribut- incorporating contemporary technologies into wind turbines.
able to communication system advancements, smart At first, wind power had little effect on how the power sys-
grids can operate more reliably (Majeed Butt et al. tem was managed, but because of its scale, it now needs a
2021). far more active role. The machines now have a 3.00 MW
unit size. A squirrel cage induction generator directly
These recent advances and prospects in renewable energy linked to the grid is the foundation of wind turbine tech-
demonstrate the potential for a more sustainable and envi- nology (Chaurasiya et al. 2019). This idea might directly
ronmentally friendly energy landscape. However, continued connect the electrical grid to wind-generated power (Söder
research, development, and investment will be essential to 2003). Developments in generators are also made. Doubly-
fully realize these opportunities and address the challenges fed Induction generators, Fixed Speed Induction Genera-
associated with renewable energy integration into the global tors, Synchronous Generators, and Maximum Power Point
energy mix. Tracking Techniques have been manufactured by different
manufacturers since 2015 to improve the power generation
of wind farms (Söder 2003).
Opportunity and prospects Hydro-energy is produced when water moves quickly. It
can be used economically and technically to further human-
Environmental impacts of renewable energy for sustain- ity's goals. The lost energy in water flow can be recovered
able development offer opportunities and prospects crucial by putting a hydro turbine near the end with the highest
for addressing climate change and promoting a sustain- pressure, which is advantageous for energy production and
able future. Aiming to reduce the overall emissions from reducing pollution. Recommended action can be placing a
energy-producing systems is a practical strategy for reducing compressed air energy storage device that uses compressed
environmental pollution and the difficulties brought on by near-isothermal water without thermal energy storage. The
climate change. Emerging renewable energy technologies optimum choice for energy storage is the pumped hydro
include concentrated solar photovoltaics (CSP), enhanced energy preservation system (Blakers et al. 2021).
geothermal energy (EGE), wind energy, and hydro-energy More research and development projects are urgently
(Majeed Butt et al. 2021). needed in geothermal energy in exploration data, drill-
The endeavor to reduce carbon emissions internationally ing technology, and reservoir operation and maintenance
remains a crucial concern in the countries and internation- (Baroutaji et al. 2019). Technologies utilized to exploit these
ally as the consumption of products made from fossil fuels kinds of energy-producing mediums must be thoroughly
rises daily. Fossil fuels supply around 40–43% of the energy assessed if enhanced geothermal energy is to be made more
required by the globe. The latest approved PCE (photo con- affordable. These technologies include temperature-hard-
version efficiency) for a DSSC (dye-sensitized solar cell) ened submersible pumps, zonal isolation tools, monitoring
by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is and logging tools, and coupled models to forecast reservoir
12.3% (Baroutaji et al. 2019; Bera et al. 2021). This tech- expansion (Reinsch et al. 2017). The cost of drilling and the
nology has recently attracted more academic attention since electricity generated using this method would decrease when
some experts believe it to be the energy of the future. The drilling techniques are developed for harvesting increased
International Energy Agency (IEA)-sponsored research and geothermal energy. An integrated energy conversion system,
development initiatives on concentrating solar technologies, such as a solar geothermal hybrid, should be promoted to
such as SolarPACES, have helped improve CSPs' efficiency improve the quality of geothermal energy (Baroutaji et al.
and performance (Solar thermal plants). Pilot CSP facilities 2019). To fully realize these opportunities and prospects,

13
 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

addressing challenges such as intermittency, energy stor- Sustainable feedstock sourcing and efficient conversion tech-
age, infrastructure development, and policy frameworks is nologies are essential.
essential. Strategic planning and international collaboration Renewable energy technologies offer numerous environ-
will be critical in harnessing the environmental benefits of mental benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emis-
renewable energy for sustainable development on a global sions, improved air quality, and decreased reliance on finite
scale. fossil fuel resources. These benefits contribute to long-term
sustainability. The transition to renewable energy is not with-
out challenges. Intermittency, energy storage, and resource
Conclusion availability are issues that require technological innovation
and effective policy measures. Trade-offs between environ-
Renewable energy sources have become a vital component mental conservation and renewable energy development
of sustainable development efforts worldwide. This com- need to be carefully balanced. Effective policies and regu-
prehensive review explores the environmental impacts of lations are crucial for maximizing the environmental ben-
various renewable energy technologies, aiming to shed efits of renewable energy. Governments should incentivize
light on their contributions to a more sustainable future. sustainable practices, support research and development,
We assess the advantages and disadvantages of renewable and encourage public–private partnerships. Carbon pricing
energy sources, highlighting their potential to mitigate cli- and renewable energy targets are effective tools for promot-
mate change and reduce dependence on fossil fuels while ing sustainability. Renewable energy sources are essential
addressing their environmental challenges. The review con- for achieving sustainable development and mitigating the
cludes with a discussion of policy recommendations and impacts of climate change. While they offer numerous envi-
research priorities to optimize the environmental benefits ronmental benefits, their deployment should be guided by
of renewable energy. responsible practices and informed policy decisions. Con-
We discussed the global transition to renewable energy tinued research, innovation, and collaboration are essential
sources essential to combat climate change, reduce green- to optimizing the environmental performance of renewable
house gas emissions, and promote sustainable development. energy technologies on the path to a sustainable future. This
This review examines the environmental impacts of renew- structured review article offers a comprehensive examination
able energy technologies, including wind, solar, hydro, geo- of the novelty within the sustainable energy sector, provid-
thermal, and biomass energy, and evaluates their potential ing insightful knowledge into the most recent developments
to contribute to a sustainable future. Wind energy is one of and their implications for a more sustainable energy future.
the fastest-growing renewable energy sources, with minimal
Author contribution All authors have equal contributions.
greenhouse gas emissions during operation. However, con-
cerns arise regarding land use, noise, and impacts on wild- Declarations
life. Advances in technology and proper site selection can
mitigate these concerns. Solar energy is clean and abundant Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no personal re-
but involves energy-intensive manufacturing processes. It lationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in
this paper.
also raises issues related to land use and disposal of pho-
tovoltaic panels at the end of their life cycle. Research into
recycling and sustainable manufacturing practices is vital.
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Authors and Affiliations

D. Gayen1 · R. Chatterjee1 · S. Roy1

1
* S. Roy Department of Chemical Engineering, University
subhasis1093@gmail.com of Calcutta, 92 A.P.C Road, Kolkata 700009, India

13

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