ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental studies envisage study of interactions of the physical, chemical and biological
components of the environment and also the relationships and effects of these components with the
organisms in the environment.

Multi-disciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

It is essentially a multi-disciplinary approach and its components include Biology, Geology,

Chemistry, Physics, Engineering, Sociology, Medical Sciences, Anthropology, Economics,
Statistics, Philosophy etc. Role of dif f erent branches can be summarized as:

Physics: To understand the change of material and energy interaction and to make mathematical
models of environment.

Chemistry: To understand the molecular interactions in the system.

Biology: To describe the ef f ects within the plant and animal kingdom and their diversity.

Atmospheric Science: To examine the phenomenology of the Earth’s gaseous outer layer. It
comprises meteorological studies, greenhouse effect, airborne contaminants, sound propagation
phenomena related to noise pollution, and even, light pollution.

Ecology: To analyse the dynamics among an interrelated set of populations, or a population and
some aspects of its environment. These studies could be on endangered species, predator
interactions, ef f ects upon populations by environmental contaminants etc.

Environmental Chemistry: To study the chemical alterations in the environment. Principal areas
of study include soil contamination and water pollution. The topics of analysis involve chemical
degradation in the environment, multi-phase transport of chemicals and chemical ef f ects upon
biota.
Geo-science: It includes environmental geology, environmental soil science, volcanic phenomena
and evolution of the earth’s crust.

Mathematics and Computer Science: Used in environmental modelling and analysis of

environment related data.

Economics: It deals with economical aspects of various components of environment.

Law: It helps in f raming of environment related laws, acts, rules and their monitoring.

Social Science: It helps in dealing with population and health related issues.

1.LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE
There are five layers in the structure of the atmosphere depending upon temperature. These layers are:

• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
• Exosphere

Troposphere

• It is considered as the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere.

• The troposphere starts at the surface of the earth and goes up to a height of 8 kms (poles) to 18 kms
(equator). The main reason of higher height at the equator is due to presence of hot convection
currents that push the gases upward.
• All kinds of weather changes occurs within this layer.
• This layer has water vapor and mature particles.
• Temperature decreases with increasing height of atmosphere at the rate of 1 degree Celsius for every
165 m of height. This is called Normal lapse rate.

Stratosphere

• It is the second layer of the atmosphere found above the troposphere.

• It extends up to a height of 50 km from the earth’s surface.
• This layer is very dry as it contains little water vapour.
• This layer provides some advantages for flight because it is above stormy weather and has steady,
strong, horizontal winds.
• The ozone layer is found in this layer.
• The ozone layer absorbs UV rays and safeguards earth from harmful radiation.

Mesosphere

• The Mesosphere is found above the stratosphere.

 • It is the coldest of the atmospheric layers.
• The mesosphere starts at 50 km above the surface of Earth and goes up to 80 km.
• The temperature drops with altitude in this layer.
• By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees Celsius.
• Meteors burn up in this layer.

Thermosphere

• This layer is found from 80 to 400 km.

• Radio waves that are transmitted from the earth are reflected by this layer.
• The temperature starts increasing again with increasing height in this layer.
• Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.

Ionosphere

• The lower Thermosphere is called the Ionosphere.

• The ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known as ions.
• This layer is defined as the layer of the atmosphere of Earth that is ionized by cosmic and solar
radiation.
• It is positioned between 80 and 400 km above the Mesopause.

Exosphere

• It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.

• The zone where molecules and atoms escape into space is mentioned as the exosphere.
• It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km.
Scope of Environmental studies:

Environmental studies has multiple and multi -level scopes:

1. Conservation of ecosystem and biodiversity

2. Prevention and control of pollution

3. Management of natural resources

4. Impacts of human population on the environment.

According to UNESCO (1971), the objectives of environmental studies are:

(a) To impart basic knowledge about the environment and its allied problems.

(b) To create the awareness about environmental problems among people.

(c) To develop an attitude of concern f or the environment.

(d) Motivate public to participate in environment protection and environment improvement.

(e) Help acquiring skills to assist the concerned individuals in identif ying and solving
environmental problems.

(f) To suggest the pathways to attain harmony with nature.

Importance of environmental studies

The importance of environmental studies is described as f ollows:

1. Clarif ication of modern environmental concept like how to conserve biodiversity.

2. Helping people know the more sustainable way of living.

3. Making masses understand how to use natural resources more ef f iciently.

4. Developing awareness about the behaviour of organism under natural conditions.

5. Creating knowledge about the inter -relationship between organisms in populations and
communities.

6. Creating awareness and educating people regarding environmental issues and problems at
local, national and international levels.

2.What is an Ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with each
other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions between
organisms and their environment.

The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

The structure of an ecosystem has two main components, namely:

Biotic Components

Abiotic Components

Biotic Components- Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on
nutrition, biotic components can be categorized into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or
decomposers).

• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can produce food
through the process of photosynthesis.

• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers are
further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers. Primary
consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food. Secondary consumers depend on
 primary consumers for energy. They can either be carnivores or omnivores. Tertiary consumers are
organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores
or omnivores

• Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead and
decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in recycling
nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components- Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air,
water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc

4.Types of Ecosystem

• Terrestrial Ecosystem

• Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial
ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

• Forest Ecosystem

• Grassland Ecosystem

• Tundra Ecosystem
• Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem

A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and microorganisms that live in
coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the
earth and are the major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem

In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands and
tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland ecosystems.

Desert Ecosystem

Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and scarce vegetation. The days
are hot, and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two types,
namely:

• Freshwater Ecosystem
 • Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands.
These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem

The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and greater
biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

5.Food chain

The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is
called the food chain. Give one example .

6.Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within a single
ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains

7. Biodiversity -Biodiversity refers to a variety of plant and animal life on earth.

8. Types of Biodiversity

• Genetic Biodiversity

• Species Biodiversity

• Ecological Biodiversity

9. Causes of Biodiversity Loss/Threats of Biodiversity

• Habitat loss and fragmentation

• Over-exploitation

• Pollution
• Alien species invasions
10. Biodiversity Conservation

Biodiversity can be conserved by the following two methods:

In situ conservation – It involves the protection and conservation of a variety of animals and plant species
in its natural habitat. It includes biosphere reserves, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, wild forests
etc. Name few National parks and Wildlife sanctuaries.

Ex-situ conservation – It involves protection and conservation of rare species of animals and plants outside
their natural habitats. These include zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. Genes , seeds
and tissues are stored in liquid nitrogen at -196 c called cryopreservation .
11. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is the international legal instrument for "the
conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing
of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources" that has been ratified by 196 nations.

12.Environmental Pollution: Types, Causes and Effects

Environmental Pollution is the undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful impacts on plants,
animals, and human beings.

A substance that causes Pollution is known as a Pollutant.

Types of Environmental Pollution

• Air Pollution

• Water Pollution

• Soil Pollution

• Noise Pollution

• Radioactive Pollution

13.Air Pollution

Air Pollution occurs due to undesirable changes in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of air
that exert harmful effects on all living beings.

Causes of Air Pollution

• Particulate pollutants which constitute metallic particles, dust particles, soot, aerosol, and smoke.

• Gaseous pollutants in the air constitute carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and
sulphur dioxide.

• Excessive use of fossil fuels by automobiles

• Smokestacks of thermal power plants, smelters, etc.

• Garbage decomposition

• Use of petrol and diesel

Effects of Air Pollution

The various effects of air pollutants on plants, animals, and humans are as follows:

On Plants

• It causes fruit damage and various leaf diseases like chlorosis, necrosis, and mottled spots on leaves.
 • Decreases the growth yield of crops and causes premature death of plants.

• Weakens plants and increases infestation by pests.

• Acid rain damages the aerial parts and also acidifies the soils. It leads to the production of free
radicals, thus, decreasing photosynthesis and productivity.

On Humans

• About 40% of human deaths occur due to air pollution.

• Causes an increase in susceptibility to diseases.

• Causes cancer and genetic mutations.

• Causes respiratory ailments like asthma, hay fever, and other allergic diseases.

• Causes cardiovascular diseases and damage to the central nervous system, resulting in premature
death.

• Causes immediate effects like inflammation, nausea, headache, and irritation to the eyes and nose.

Prevention of Air Pollution

• We have seen the different causes of air pollution through human activities. Their adverse effects on
the environment and health are also discussed. Now, it is time to see how we can prevent air
pollution by taking control measures of air pollution. Air pollution can be reduced only if there is a
collective effort from everyone’s side. There are 10 different ways given below that help in the
control of air pollution.
• 1. Use of Public Transport: The burning of fossil fuels is one of the most important causes of air
pollution. If most people use public transport, then the number of vehicles on the road decreases and
thereby decreases the burning of fossil fuels. The less burning of fuels leads to less amount of
greenhouse gases being emitted which in turn reduces global warming.
• 2. Reduce the Consumption of Electricity: We can reduce the electricity consumption in our homes
by switching off the lights and appliances when not in use. Electricity is produced from the burning
of fossil fuels in some places. Hence, reducing electricity consumption can greatly reduce air
pollution.
• 3. Recycling and Reuse of Products: Some of the products which are thrown away after use can be
recycled and reused for a cleaner environment. It takes less energy to recycle than manufacturing the
same products and thereby reducing the chemical emissions.
• 4. Avoid Plastic Bags: Plastic bags are becoming a curse to the environment. Most of the plastic
bags are not recyclable and reused. It takes a long time to decompose into the soil. Also the burning
of plastic releases poisonous gases into the air. The plastic gas can be replaced by paper bags which
can be decomposed easily.
• 5. Avoid Burning of Plastics: Burning of plastics and other similar materials release poisonous
gases in the atmosphere which worsens the condition of the air. Make use of the waste management
plans by the government to dispose of plastic materials.
• 6. Avoid Air Conditioners and Use Fans: The heat released by the air conditioner into the
atmosphere is greater than the heat it absorbs from the room. This greater heat released into the air
 causes global warming. The freon gas which is used as a refrigerant causes the depletion of ozone
layers which prevents the harmful ultraviolet rays from reaching the surface of the earth.
• 7. Use Filters in Chimneys: The smoke released from chimneys contains air pollutants that worsen
the quality of air. However, using filters in chimneys can prevent air pollutants from reaching the
earth's atmosphere to a greater extent.
• 8. Avoid Crackers and Fireworks: The burning of crackers and fireworks causes air pollution.
During festivals, the use of large amounts of fireworks and crackers worsen the quality of air and can
cause poor visibility.
• 9. Reduce the Use of Chemicals: The chemicals released into the atmosphere can act as air
pollutants. The toxic pollutants are released from body sprays, paints which pollute the air at a
greater rate.
• 10. Planting more Trees: The plants can purify the air by taking in carbon dioxide and releasing
oxygen during the time of photosynthesis. This reduces the greenhouse effect and thereby decreases
air pollution again. Planting more trees also helps to avoid global warming.

14.Water Pollution

Water Pollution is defined as any undesirable change in physical, chemical, or biological properties of water
that may affect living beings adversely. Due to human activities, ponds, rivers, oceans, and estuaries are
getting polluted in several parts of the world.

Causes of Water Pollution

• Discharge of untreated domestic sewage into rivers leads to water pollution.

• Excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture also causes water pollution.

• Discharge of toxic waste from factories and refineries. etc., pollute water.

• Oil spills that are an accidental release of oil by tankers in oceans may cause marine water pollution.

• Inappropriate disposal of litter such as plastic bags, wrappers and bottles, lead to Water Pollution.

Effects of Water Pollution

Water-borne diseases: Sewage gives the maximum opportunity for the pathogenic and non -pathogenic
microorganisms to grow. These pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms are responsible for several
water-borne diseases like diarrhoea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, jaundice, hepatitis, etc.

15.Eutrophication:

Chemicals in a water body, encourage the growth of algae. These algae form a layer on top of the pond or
lake. Bacteria feed on this algae and this decreases the amount of oxygen in the water body, severely
affecting the aquatic life there.

16.Minamata and Itai Itai disease are due to the toxicity of mercury and cadmium respectively. The
Minamata disease is caused by severe mercury poisoning which can lead to insanity, paralysis, coma, and
even death within weeks after the first symptoms are seen.
17.Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) represents the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria and other
microorganisms while they decompose organic matter under aerobic (oxygen is present) conditions at a
specified temperature.

18.Biomagnification or biological magnification is the process of accumulation of certain chemicals in

living organisms to a concentration higher than that occurring in the inorganic, non -living environment.”

One example of biomagnification is the accumulation of insecticide DDT which gets accumulated in
zooplanktons. Small fishes consume these zooplanktons. Small fishes are consumed by large fish which are
finally consumed by fish-eating bird present at the highest position in tropic level.

Control measures of Water pollution

• There is a plant known as ‘Water Hyacinth’ that absorbs dissolved toxic substances like cadmium
and mercury from water bodies, thus actively removing pollutants from water.
• It is important to dispose-off waste carefully and not to dump it directly into water bodies, without
proper waste treatment.
• Industries should treat their wastes carefully before disposing of chemicals and other materials into
water bodies directly. Sewage treatment plants and wastewater treatment plants in industries are
established to treat the water used so it can be safely mixed into the river streams. It also enables
water recycling.
• Using natural fertilizers and pesticides as substitutes for chemical ones is good for plants and water.
• Chemical processes such as coagulation, ion exchange method, reverse osmosis, etc. will greatly
reduce the level of water pollution.
• Lastly, it is better to reduce the consumption of water in our daily activities and reuse water
whenever possible to reduce the overall level of pollution.

19.Soil pollution refers to the degradation of land due to the presence of chemicals or other man -made
substances in the soil For instance, any toxic chemicals present in the soil will get absorbed by the plants.
Since plants are producers in an environment, it gets passed up through the food chain.

Some of the common causes of soil pollution are:

• Improper industrial waste disposal

• Oil Spills

• Acid rain which is caused by air pollution

• Mining activities

• Intensive farming and agrochemicals (like fertilisers and pesticides)

• Industrial accidents

The effects of soil pollution

 • Specific wastes, such as radioactive waste become particularly hazardous when they are not well-
contained. A well-documented example is a nuclear accident in Chernobyl, which has left an area of
2,600 km2 uninhabitable for several thousand years.

• Loss of soil nutrients, which renders the soil unfit for agriculture

• Impacts the natural flora and fauna residing in the soil

• Degrades vegetation due to the increase of salinity of the soil

20.RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION

It occurs when there is a presence or depositions of radioactive materials in the atmosphere or environment,
especially where their presence is accidental and when it presents an environmental threat due to radioactive
decay.

The destruction caused by the radioactive materials is because of the emissions of hazardous ionizing
radiation (radioactive decay) like beta or alpha particles, gamma rays or neurons in the environment where
they exist.

Causes of Radioactive Pollution

1. Nuclear Accidents From Nuclear Energy Generation Plants

In the postmodern world, various forms of energy are being discovered. Among them is nuclear energy,
which is touted to be the most potent source of energy due to its high latent power. Reports indicate that the
high latent power is due to its high level of radiation .Its use is, therefore, prohibited, but research is
underway to determine its environmental safety and to put in place the most appropriate precautionary
measures for its use. In some cases and countries, however, nuclear power plant accidents like the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), Chernobyl disaster (1986), and Three Mile Island accident
(1979) left many dead and even many more affected by the radiation released.

2. The Use of Nuclear Weapons as Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)

The use of nuclear missiles and atomic bombs, a form of nuclear energy, in the Second World War explains
not only the cause but also the damaging nature of radioactive pollution or contamination.

The effects of those two strikes in Hiroshima and Nagasaki that prompted the end of the war in 1945 have
been seen to date with children born with complications such as mental retardation as well as conditions like
autism and other disorders. The number of cancer cases present in the two towns is more than those of the
rest of Japan.

Effects of Nuclear Pollution

🠶 Weakens the immune system of the body.

🠶 When the radioactive material is shipped via water then it can also cause toxicity in water and we use the
same water for various purposes.

🠶 Nuclear pollution is another major cause of earth warming.

🠶 Skin Diseases.

🠶 Damages the reproductive organs.

🠶 Destroys the Retina of Eyes.

🠶 Shortening of life span.

🠶 Cancer

21.Solid waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal and monitoring of
solid waste materials

REDUCE, REUSE AND RECYCLE

• Reduction is the most important strategy of the three Rs.

• It focus on the source of the waste, or where the waste is originally coming from. Source reduction is
carried out when products are designed, manufactured, packaged, and used in a way that limits the amount
or toxicity of waste created.

• The second most important strategy of the three Rs is to Reuse, which is when an item is cleaned and the
materials are used again.

• The third R in the hierarchy is Recycle, which means reprocessing of disposed material into new and useful
products.

22.COMPOSTING

• It is controlled biological decomposition of organic matter, such as food and yard wastes, into humus.

• Composting is the natural process of 'rotting' or decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms under
controlled conditions.

• It can be anaerobic and aerobic.

• This process takes about 4 to 6 weeks.

23.LANDFILLING

• A landfill site is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste
treatment.

• Waste is directly dumped into mining voids or borrow pits. Disposed waste is compacted and covered with
soil.

24.Sanitary landfills:

•Sanitary Landfills are designed to greatly reduce or eliminate the risks that waste disposal may pose to the
public health and environmental quality
25.INCINERATION

• Incineration is a waste management technology that involves the combustion of organic materials and/or
substances. • It is carried out at high temperature.

26.PYROLYSIS

• Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures in the absence of

oxygen.

27.Biomedical waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or
animals or in research activities in these fields or in the production or testing of biological.

•Medical solid waste includes both non-hazardous and hazardous waste constituents.

28.Electronic waste (E-WASTE) is of concern largely due to the toxicity and carcinogenicity of some of
the substances if processed improperly. Toxic substances in electronic waste include lead, mercury and
cadmium. • Carcinogenic substances in electronic waste may include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

29.Hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The hydrosphere includes water that is on the
surface of the planet, underground, and in the air. A planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice. On
Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes and rivers. Helps to maintain the
hydrological cycle. Plays a vital role in the earth’s climate.

30.Biogas

Biogas is the mixture of gases (about 60% methane) produced by anaerobic bacterial digestion of organic
matter. Biogas consists mainly of methane (CH 4; ca. 60%) and CO2 (ca. 40%) plus traces of hydrogen (H 2)
and several other gases. It can be produced by agricultural waste, food waste, animal dung, manure, and
sewage. Biogas recycles the waste products naturally and converts them into useful energy, thereby,
preventing any pollution caused by the waste in the landfills, and cutting down the effect of the toxic
chemicals released from the sewage treatment plants.

31.Global warming

Global warming is the phenomenon of gradual increase in the average temperature of earth . It is caused by
the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs etc. into the atmosphere.
Causes of Global Warming

Deforestation

Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby maintaining
environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and commercial purposes. This has led
to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global warming.

Use of Vehicles

The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil
fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a
temperature increase.

Chlorofluorocarbon

With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been adding CFCs into the
environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth surface from the
harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer depletion making way for the
ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.

Industrial Development

With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been increasing rapidly. The harmful
emissions from the factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth.

In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the increase in the global temperature
between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to
the pre-industrial mean temperature.

Agriculture

Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to the greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.

Water Vapour

Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s temperature, more water gets
evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.

32.Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is the process to keep the surface of Earth warm by the greenhouse gases, including
carbon dioxide and methane, as well as nitrous oxide and water vapour that traps the sun’s heat energy back
to Earth’s surface. Sun’s radiations pass through the atmosphere, and some radiations are trapped by the
greenhouse gas and make the surface of Earth warm.

33.Ozone layer depletion

“Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused due
to the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous bromine or chlorine from industries or other
human activities.”

The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include chlorofluorocarbon, carbon tetrachloride,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-depleting substances that contain
bromine are halons, methyl bromide, and hydro bromofluorocarbons.

Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It is only when the chlorine atom
reacts with some other molecule, it does not react with ozone.

Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and import of ozone -depleting
substances and minimise their concentration in the atmosphere to protect the ozone layer of the earth .

Effects on Human Health

Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to the depletion of the
ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans, such as skin diseases, cancer,
sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system.

Effects on Animals

Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.

Effects on the Environment

Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in plants. The forests also
have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.

Effects on Marine Life

Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are higher in the aquatic
food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms present in the food chain are also affected.

34.Acid rain
Acid rain is made up of highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, most specifically the
disproportionate levels of sulphur and nitrogen emitted by vehicles and manufacturing processes.

Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with water are found in two ways either man -made i.e as the
emissions that are given out from industries or by natural causes like lightning strike in the atmosphere
releasing nitrogen oxides and volcanic eruptions releasing sulphur oxide.

The pH value of regular rainwater is around 5.7, giving it an acidic nature

Effects of Acid Rain

• Acid rain is very harmful to agriculture, plants, and animals. It washes away all nutrients which are
required for the growth and survival of plants. Acid rain affects agriculture by the way it alters the
composition of the soil.
• It causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.
• When acid rain falls down and flows into the rivers and ponds it affects the aquatic ecosystem. It
alters the chemical composition of the water, to a form which is actually harmful to the aquatic
ecosystem to survive and causes water pollution.
• Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes, which further results in leaching of
heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into drinking water.

• It damages the buildings and monuments made up of stones and metals.

35. Environmental Protection Act 1986
The Act covers all forms of pollution; air, water, soil and noise. It provides the safe standards for the
presence of various pollutants in the environment. It prohibits the use of hazardous material unless prior
permission is taken from the Central Government.

The objective of EPA is to protect and improve the environment and environmental conditions. It also
implements the decisions made at the UN Conference on Human Environment that was held in Stockholm in
the year 1972. To take strict actions against all those who harm the environment

36.Wildlife Protection Act 1972

The Indian Parliament enacted the Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972, which provides for the safeguard and
protection of the wildlife (flora and fauna) in the country.
This Act provides for the protection of the country’s wild animals, birds, and plant species, in order to ensure
environmental and ecological security. Among other things, the Act lays down restrictions on hunting many
animal species

37. The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was adopted by the Indian parliament with
the aim of prevention and control of Water Pollution in India. t applies in the first instance to the whole of
the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and the Union territories; and it shall apply to such
other State which adopts this Act by resolution passed in that behalf under clause (1) of article 252 of the
Constitution.

38. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981, or the Air Act, in short, was a law passed by
the Parliament of India to prevent and control the harmful effects of air pollution in India. This act is seen as
the first concrete step taken by the government of India to combat air pollution.

39. Energy Flow in Ecosystem

The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living organisms. This energy is
transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain. This energy flow is based on two different laws
of thermodynamics:

• First law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only
change from one form to another.

• Second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred more and more of it is wasted.
The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival of such a great number
of organisms. For almost all organisms on earth, the primary source of energy is solar energy. It is amusing
to find that we receive less than 50 per cent of the sun’s effective radiation on earth. When we say effective
radiation, we mean the radiation, which can be used by plants to carry out photosynthesis.

40.Ecological Succession

“Ecological succession is a series of changes that occur in an ecological community over time.” Ecological
succession is the steady and gradual change in a species of a given area with respect to the changing
environment.

41.Hydrosere

Succession in aquatic habitat.

Xerosere

Succession in dry habitat.

42.CNG

The full form of CNG is Compressed Natural Gas. CNG is a fuel that can be used in replacement of diesel,
petrol & LPG (liquefied petroleum gas).

• CNG is an odourless, colourless and tasteless compound with noncorrosive and nontoxic properties.
• The primary use in automobiles is as a substitute for gasoline.

• Methane is the main component of CNG.

• It generally produces few greenhouse gases.

• It is very healthy as it easily scatters into the air.

• CNG is derived mainly from natural gas wells, coal wells, bed methane wells and oil wells.
43.Bioaccumalation
The process of accumulating toxic chemicals such as pollutants, pesticides and other toxins directly into the
human body either through the air, water, food intake, or directly through the skin is termed
Bioaccumulation. As this toxic compound accumulates within the human body, it increases the risk of
chronic poisoning and other severe health disorders.

44.Biofuel

“Biofuel is an inexhaustible, biodegradable fuel manufactured from Biomass.”

Biofuel is considered pure and the easiest available fuels on planet earth. Biofuels are obtained from biomass
like wood and straw, which are released by direct combustion of dry matter and convert into a gaseous and
liquid fuel. Other sources include organic matter like sludge, sewage and vegetable oils matter, which can be
converted into biofuels by a wet process like digestion and fermentation.

45.Population explosion

Population explosion means a sudden increase in the number of individuals in a particular species. The term
is used to refer to the world’s human population. In India, Population explosion has become a severe matter
of concern because the increase in population leads to poverty and illiteracy. In this situation, it is difficult to
cope up with the economy of the country with the rapid growth of the population.

Major Causes of Population Explosion

1. Increase in Birth Rate

2. Decrease in Death Rate

3. Early Marriage

4. Religious and Social Reasons

5. Poverty

6. Standard of Living

7. Illiteracy
46. Environment
It is defined as the total planetary inheritance and the totality of all resources. It includes all the biotic and
abiotic elements that influence each other.
All living elements-the birds, animals and plants, forests, fisheries etc. are biotic elements.
Abiotic elements of the environment includes non-living elements like air, water, land, rocks and sunlight
etc.
Functions of the Environment
(i) Environment supplies resource (both renewable and nonrenewable resources) for production.
(ii) Environment assimilates waste,
(iii) Environment sustains life.
(iv) Environment enhances quality of life.

47. Renewable resources are those which can be used without the possibility of the resource becoming
depleted or exhausted. That is, a continuous supply of resource remains available for e.g. tress in forest and
the fish in the oceans.
Non renewable resources are those which get exhausted with extraction and use. For example, fossil fuel.
48. Land degradation refers to a decline in the overall quality of soil, water or vegetation condition,
commonly caused by human activities.
Some of the factors responsible for land degradation is
(i) loss of vegetation occurring due to deforestation.
(ii) Forest fires and over grazing.
(iii) Improper crop rotation.
(iv) Encroachment into forest lands.
(v) Shifting cultivation.

49. Sustainable development

It is that process of development which meets the needs of present generation without reducing the ability of
future generation to meet their own needs.

Sustainable development has three goals: to minimize the depletion of natural resources, to promote
development without causing harm to the environment and to make use of environmentally friendly
practices.

Main features of sustainable development

(i) Sustained rise in Real per Capita Income and Economic welfare.
(ii) Rational use of natural resources.
(iii) No reduction in the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.
(iv) Check on pollution.

Strategies for Sustainable Development.

(i) Use of non-conventional sources of energy.
(ii) Use of cleaner fuels: LPG, Gobargas in rural areas and CNG in Urban areas.
(iii) Use of Solar energy and wind power.
(iv) Shift to organic farming.
(v) Recycle the wastes
(vi) Public means of transport.

50.Environmental Movements

The Silent Valley Movement

Year of the Movement 1978

Place Kerala

Leaders Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) and local people

Reason/Aim of the To save the silent valley and its rich biodiversity from the hydroelectric dam
Movement project that had been proposed.

Chipko Movement

Year of the Movement 1973

Place Uttarakhand

Leaders Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sunderlal Bhauguna and others

Reason/Aim of the Movement To protect the Himalayan forests from destruction

Bishnoi Movement

Year of the Movement 1700s

Place Rajasthan
Leaders Amrita Devi Bishnoi

Reason/Aim of the To stop the destruction of the village’s sacred trees for building a new
Movement palace for the king

Appiko Movement

Year of the 1983

Movement

Place Karnataka

Leaders Panduranga Hegde, Villagers of Western Ghats; Women and youth from
Saklani and surrounding villages

Reason/Aim of the To stop cutting trees by the fellers and the contractors of the forest
Movement department. The people demanded a ban on the felling of green trees.

Narmada Bachao Andolan

Year of the Movement 1985

Place Gujarat, Madhya

Pradesh and Maharashtra

Leaders Medha Patkar and other activists

Reason/Aim of the To question the rationale behind the developmental projects, especially dam
Movement construction across the river.

51. Ecosystem:

The ecosystem is the functional unit of nature in which living organisms interact with each other as
well as their surrounding physical environment.

52.Structure of Ecosystem

The structure of the ecosystem comprises two different components:

• Biotic
• Abiotic
Biotic Components

Biotic Components are the living components involved in shaping the ecosystem. It includes biotic factors
such as:

• Producers: All green plants in the ecosystem are termed producers, as they produce their own food
by making use of solar energy. All living organisms are dependent on plants for both oxygen and
food.
• Consumers: They include both primary consumers and secondary consumers. As animals depend on
plants for their food, they are called consumers. Primary consumers feed directly on producers for
their food, and secondary consumers feed on the primary consumers for their food. All herbivores
animals are an example of primary consumers. Carnivores and apex predators make up the secondary
and tertiary consumers.
• Decomposers: They are the saprophytes which include fungi and bacteria. Decomposers convert the
dead matter into nitrogen and carbon dioxide, and the process is called decomposition.
• Energy Flow: Energy flow is the flow of energy along the food chain through different trophic
levels. Energy is passed from the producers to the decomposers through various trophic levels.

Abiotic Components

Abiotic components include inorganic materials like air, water, and soil.

53. Ecosystem Types

There are three main types of ecosystems.

Terrestrial Ecosystem

These are the ecosystem found only on land. The terrestrial ecosystems include,

• Forest ecosystem
• Grassland ecosystem
• Desert ecosystem
• Mountain ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystem

The aquatic ecosystem is the ecosystem in the water body. It includes,

Freshwater Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem can be divided into the following categories:

• Lentic: This includes slow-moving or still water such as lakes, ponds, pools, etc.
• Lotic: This includes fast-moving water bodies such as rivers and streams.
 • Wetlands: These include the environment where the soil is saturated with water for a certain time
period.

Oceanic Ecosystem

The ocean ecosystem is the largest ecosystem. It covers about 71% of the total earth’s surface. This is also
known as the marine ecosystem and is divided into deep water, shallow water and deep ocean surface.

54. Ecological Pyramids

An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between different organisms. Each
bar of the pyramid represents a different trophic level. The different types of ecological pyramids include:

Pyramid of Numbers

This represents the number of organisms in each trophic level, irrespective of their size.

Pyramid of Biomass

This represents the total mass of organisms at each trophic level.

Pyramid of Energy

It is the total amount of energy present at each trophic level and the total energy lost between each trophic
level.

55.Ecological Succession

Ecological succession refers to the change in the structure of species of an ecological community over time.
There are two types.

Primary Succession

This is a type of succession in which plants and animals first colonize a barren piece of land.

Secondary Succession

This is the type of succession in which an ecosystem that is destroyed revives itself.

56. Land Degradation

Land degradation is the term used to describe how a piece of land loses value and productivity,
usually as a result of human activity.

Some Important causes for Land Degradation:

 • Drought
• Soil Erosion
• Soil pollution
• Overgrazing
• Deforestation
• Repeated extraction of minerals from the soil.

Control Measures against Land Degradation

Some control measures that can help against Land Degradation:

• Controlling mining activities.

• Planting sheltering belts for plants.
• Afforestation and proper management of grazing lands to prevent overgrazing.

57. Mineral Resources

Mineral resources are the key material basis for socio-economic development. Statistical results show that
more than 95% of energy used by mankind, 80% of industrial raw materials and 70% of raw materials for
agricultural production are from mineral resources.

Conservation of Mineral Resources

Here are some measures to conserve minerals:

• Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.

• Recycling of metals
• Use of alternative renewable substitutes.
• Technology should be improved to use the low-grade ores profitably.
•
58. Mining
Mining, process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the Earth, including the seas. A mineral,
with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite
chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure
There are many negative environmental impacts that can result from mining activities,
• Pollution

• Deforestation

• Habitat Destruction

• Loss Of Biodiversity
• Soil Erosion
59. Soil salinity
The salt content of the soil determines its salinity, and the process of raising the salt content is known as
salinization.

Causes of Salinization

• Excessive irrigation in dry weather encourages capillary actions that cause salt to build up in the top
layer of soils.
• Dry weather and low precipitation, which prevents the earth's excess salts from being washed away;
• High evaporation rates, which add salt to the ground surface;
• Poor drainage or waterlogging;
• Irrigation with salt-rich water, which increases the salt content of the earth; and, finally, high
evaporation rates.

60.Disaster

Disaster is a sudden, calamitous event bringing great damage, loss, destruction and devastation to life and
property. The damage caused by disaster is immeasurable and varies with the geographical location, climate
and the type of the earth surface. This influences the mental, socio -economic, political and cultural state of
the affected area. Generally, disaster has the following effects in the concerned areas,

1. It completely disrupts the normal day to day life

2. It negatively influences the emergency systems
3. Normal needs and processes like food, shelter, health, etc. are affected and deteriorate depending on the
intensity and severity of the disaster.

Types of Disaster

Generally, disasters are of two types – Natural and Manmade. Based on the devastation, these are further
classified into major/minor natural disaster and major/minor manmade disasters. Some of the disasters are
listed below,
natural disasters:

• Flood
• Cyclone
• Drought
• Earthquake

• Cold wave
• Thunderstorms
• Heat waves
• Mud slides
• Storm

manmade disaster:

• Setting of fires
 • Epidemic
• Deforestation
• Environmental pollution

61.FLOOD

A flood is an overflow of water on land. Sometimes a river might receive extra water, either from heavy
rains or other natural disasters. When this happens, the water overflows from its normal path in the river bed
and onto the dry land.

he following factors can lead to flooding:

Rains

Whenever there are more rains than the drainage system can take, they can cause floods.

River overflow

Rivers can overflow their banks to cause a flood. This can happen when there is more water upstream than
usual, and as it flows downstream to the adjacent low-lying areas there is a burst and water gets into the
land.

Strong winds in coastal areas

Seawater can be carried by massive winds and hurricanes onto the dry coastal lands and cause flooding. This
is made worse if the winds carry rains with themselves. Sometimes water from the sea resulting from a
tsunami can flow inland to cause damage.

Dam breaking

Dams are man-made structures mounted to hold water flowing down from a highland to a lowland. The
power in the water is used to turn propellers to generate electricity. Sometimes, too much water held up in
the dam can cause it to break and cause overflow in the area. Excess water can also be intentionally released
from the dam to prevent it from breaking and that can also cause floods.

Ice and snow melts

In cold regions, heavy snow over the winter usually stays unmelted for some time. Some mountains have an
ice cap on them. Sometimes the ice suddenly melts when the temperature rises, resulting in massive
movement of water into places that are usually dry. This is usually called a snowmelt flood
62. EARTHQUAKES

An earthquake refers to the shaking of the earth’s surface caused by a sudden release of energy within the
earth’s crust. This release of energy generates seismic waves, commonly known as S waves. The intensity
and characteristics of an earthquake are determined by the seismic activities occurring in a specific
region.Earthquakes occur due to sudden tectonic movements within the Earth’s crust.

Primary effects caused by earthquakes:

1. Ground Shaking: When an earthquake occurs, the release of energy creates seismic waves that
cause the ground to shake. The intensity of the shaking can vary depending on factors such as the
magnitude of the earthquake, the distance from the epicentre and the local geology.
2. Damage to Man-Made Structures: One of the most noticeable effects of an earthquake is the
damage it can cause to buildings, bridges, roads and other man -made structures.
3. Fires and Hazardous Chemical Spills: Earthquakes can trigger secondary hazards, such as fires and
hazardous material spills. The violent shaking can rupture gas pipelines, damage electrical systems
and disrupt infrastructure, leading to the ignition of fires..
4. Landslides and Avalanches: In areas with steep slopes or unstable terrain, earthquakes can trigger
landslides and avalanches. The shaking can destabilize slopes, causing rocks, soil and debris to slide
downhill.
5. Tsunamis: Underwater earthquakes can generate tsunamis, particularly those occurring along
tectonic plate boundaries. These massive ocean waves can travel long distances, reaching coastal
areas and causing devastating flooding. Tsunamis pose a significant threat to coastal communities
and can result in widespread destruction and loss of life

seismograph and the Richter scale are essential tools used in seismology to understand and characterise
earthquakes.

63. CYCLONES

Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-pressure area distinguished by swift and
often disruptive air circulation.
the cyclone is known to have different names in different regions of the world, and they are:

Region Other names for cyclone

Caribbean sea Hurricanes

China sea Typhoons

Indian ocean Tropical cyclones

Japan Taifu
Northern Australia Wily willies

Philippines Baguio

USA Tornadoes

What are the Types of Cyclones?

There are 4 types of cyclones and they are:

• Tropical cyclone
• Polar cyclone
• Mesocyclone
• Extratropical cyclone

64.Disaster Management

Disaster management refers to effective management of counter measures that are taken in order to mitigate
the effect natural calamities that lead to desperate situations after calamities such as earthquakes, floods,
landslides, tsunamis, etc

Disaster management pivots around preplanning, which includes

• Organizing general disaster management teams to respond to any general disaster and in any
terrain.
• Organizing special quick response teams that are highly specific to nature and region of
disaster.
• Most important part is indentifying threats that a particular region is most venerable to. This
involves setting up of research stations that study the terrain, climate and underground
seismic activities of the region.

65. POPULATION EXPLOSION IN INDIA

A rapid increase in the population is known as a population explosion.

The two main common causes leading to over population in India are:

• The birth rate is still higher than the death rate. We have been successful in declining the death rates but
the same cannot be said for birth rates.

• The fertility rate due to the population policies and other measures has been falling but even then it is
much higher compared to other countries.
Causes of population growth:

1. Decrease in the death rate due to improved medical facilities with the birth rate remaining the same is
one of the major causes of population growth in India.
2. Illiteracy prevalent in major parts of India make people believe that 'children are god's blessings'
hence making them against the concept of ‘family planning’.
3. People of India follow different religions of which some of them do not advocate the concept of
‘family planning’.
4. As most of the families in rural areas are below the poverty line, they think having a large family will
increase their source of income by sending children to work.
5. Decrease in infant mortality rate due to improved medical facilities.
6. Many of the Indian families are superstitious about the fact that ‘children are a sign of prosperity’.
7. Indian families believe that a male child is responsible to continue one's lineage and the constant
attempt to have a male child results in number of female children.
8. Industrialization and growth of opportunities in urban areas have increased the urban population.
9. Average life span of people has increased due to control of epidemics by immunization programs.
10. In rural areas, children are considered a source of recreation, hence giving birth to more children is a
practice in rural areas
11. Poverty and Illiteracy: Another factor for the rapid growth of population is poverty. Impoverished
families have this notion that more the number of members in the family, more will be the numbers
to earn income. Some feel that more children are needed to look after them in their old age. Also,
hunger can be a cause of death of their children and hence the need for more children.
12. Age-old cultural norm: Sons are the bread earners of the families in India. This age -old thought puts
considerable pressure on the parents to produce children until a male child is born. More the better.
13. Illegal migration: Last but not the least, we cannot ignore the fact that illegal migration is
continuously taking place from Bangladesh, Nepal leading to increased population density. Effects of
Over Population Even after 67 years of independence, the scenario of our country is not good, due to
over population. Some major impacts of the high population are as follows:
14. Unemployment: Generating employment for a huge population in a country like India is very
difficult. The number of illiterate persons increases every year. The unemployment rate is thus
showing an increasing trend.

67. Control measures can be broadly classified into the direct method and indirect method.

The direct method includes:

• Focus on family planning measures.

• Providing free education and advice to the people.
• Strictly follow the minimum age criteria of marriage.
The indirect method includes:

• Literacy.
• Female empowerment.
• Improvement in quality of life.
• Positive attitudes towards women’s rights in sexual relationships.
Major steps which have been already implemented but still need to be emphasised more control population.
Increasing the welfare and status of women and girls, spread of education, increasing awareness for the use
of contraceptives and family planning methods, sex education, encouraging male sterilisation and spacing
births, free distribution of contraceptives and condoms among the poor, encouraging female empowerment,
more health care centres for the poor, to name a few, can play a major role in controlling the population .

68. Biogeographic Zones of INDIA

• Zone 1 – Trans-Himalayan

In the immediate north of the Great Himalayan range are the Trans-Himalayas which encapsulates
three biogeographic provinces i.e. — Himalayan Sikkim, Ladakh mountains, and Tibetan plateau. It
constitutes about 5.6% of the country's landmass. This area mostly lies between 14,800 to 19,700 feet
and is very cold and dry. The extensive region of Trans-Himalayan comprises bare rock and glaciers.
The only vegetation is the scanty alpine steppe. With its scanty vegetation, it has a superfluous wild
sheep and goat community in the world. The snow leopard, black bears, marbled cat, marmots, wolf
and kiang can be spotted here, as are the migratory Black -necked Cranes.
• Zone 2 – Himalayas

This representation of the Himalayas has the youngest and loftiest mountain sequences in the world.
The 2,400 kilometres long Himalayan mountain arc contains distinctive biodiversity in wake of its
high altitude, rich flora, soothing temperature and steep gradient. Biogeographically, they create a
part of the Palearctic realm. The Himalayas contain three biogeographical provinces i.e. — Central
Himalayas, East Himalayas, West Himalayas, and Northwest Himalayas, which together comprise
about 6.4% of the country's area.
• Zone 3 – The Indian Desert
This area comprises two biogeographical provinces i.e. The Thar desert and The Rann of Kutch.
The climate reflects very hot and dry summers while cold and arid winters. The area experiences
rainfall less than 70 cm. A highly endangered bird—The Indian Bustard is found here, in addition to
foxes, snakes, camels, gazelles, foxes, and spiny -tailed lizards.
The second biogeographical province— The Rann of Kutch that lies in Gujarat is a vast area of salt
marsh spread across the border between India and Pakistan. This larger area has desert on one side
and the sea on the other allowing several ecosystems and desert vegetation. Its deserts and grasslands
are home to various wildlife that have adapted to its harsh conditions. These account for endangered
and endemic animal and plant species, like the Indian wild ass. The Little Rann is an accommodation
to the world's largest population of Indian wild ass with other mammals including the Indian wolf,
desert fox, blackbuck, chinkara and others.
• Zone 4 - Semi-Arid Areas

A transitional zone between the desert and the denser forests of the Western Ghats are the semi-arid
areas. The area is characterized by discontinuous vegetation blanketed with bare soil and soil water
that remains in deficit throughout the year.
• Zone 5 - Western Ghats
The mountains running through the west coast of peninsular India comprising one of the unique
biological regions of the world are the Western Ghats.The diverse topography and different climate
develop a wide range of habitats that support distinctive sets of plant and animal species. The
 Western Ghats hills are amongst the biodiversity hot-spots identified globally, known for their high
levels of endemism and association with evergreen forests.
• Zone 6 - Deccan Plateau
On the farther side of Ghats is the Deccan Plateau, the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau of India.
The highlands of Deccan are blanketed with unique types of forests that offer a wide variety of forest
products.
• Zone 7 - Gangetic Plain
The biggest unit of the Great Plain of India is the Gangetic Plain. River Ganga is the main water
stream after whose name this plain is named. The thickness of the plain is characterized by the
alluvial sediments that vary significantly with their maximum in the Ganga plainsSome of the highest
population densities and Topographic uniformity from the trees belonging to these forests are teak,
shisham, sal, khair etc.
• Zone 8 - North-East India

One of the poorest regions in the country consists of several species of bamboos, orchids, ferns and
other plants. Here the wild relatives of plants such as mango, banana, citrus and pepper can be grown
and found.
• Zone 9 - Islands
Comprising two groups of islands, i.e., the Arabian Sea and Bay Islands vary considerably in origin
and physical features.
• Zone 10 - Coasts
The Indian coasts differ in their structures and features with the Indian coastline extending over
7,516. 4 km. Extensive deltas of Krishna, Kaveri and Godavari, are the prominent features of this
coast. Mangrove vegetation along the tracts of the coast at Ratnagiri in Maharashtra is a reflection of
coastal plains. Different crops are grown with Rice being the main crop of cultivation. Coconut trees
grow on the coastal plains

68.Endangered species can be defined as those species which are under risk or threat of being extinct. In
other words, species which are about to extinct.

Few Endangered species of India are

Asiatic Lion

Bengal tiger

Snow leopard

Lion tailed macaque

Kashmiri red deer

Black buck

Hoolock gibbon
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List), founded in
1964, is the world’s most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species
(Animal, fungus and plant species).

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the world’s main authority on the
conservation status of species.

69.Biodiversity levels

• Genetic diversity – It refers to the total number of genes in the genetic makeup of a species. For e.g.,
the genetic variation shown by Rauwolfia vomitoria (medicinal plant).
• Species diversity – It represents the number of species found in an ecological community. For
example – The Western ghat has a greater number of amphibian species compared to the Eastern
ghats.
• Ecological diversity – Greater diversity observed at the ecosystem level in a particular area with its
deserts, mangroves, rain forests, etc.

70. Causes of Biodiversity Loss

The following are the causes of the loss of biodiversity.

• Habitat loss and fragmentation

• Over-exploitation
• Alien species invasions
• Co-extinctions

71.Biodiversity Conservation

Biodiversity conservation is the protection, upliftment and management of biodiversity to derive sustainable
benefits for present and future generations.

Biodiversity can be conserved by the following two methods:

• In situ conservation – It involves the protection and conservation of a variety of animals and plant
species in its natural habitat. It includes biosphere reserves, hot spots, national parks and sanctuaries,
wild forests etc.
• Ex-situ conservation – It involves the protection and conservation of rare species of animals and
plants outside their natural habitats. These include zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, gene banks,
etc.