Unit I

Artificial Neural Network (ANN)

INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE(AI)
Artificial Intelligence is the ability of a machine to learn, make decisions, and take
action even when it encounters a situation it has never come across before. Hence AI
is also referred as Machine Intelligence AI uses techniques from probability theory,
economics, and algorithm design to solve practical problems. It has become an
essential part of the technology industry. Research associated with artificial
intelligence is highly technical and specialized.
John McCarthy was one of the most influential people in this field and he coined the
term "Artificial Intelligence" in the 1950s. He is known as the "Father of Artificial
Intelligence" because of his fantastic work in Computer Science and AI. The earliest
substantial work in the field of Artificial Intelligence was done in the mid-20 th century
by the British logician and computer pioneer Alan Mathison Turing.
. There are three types of AI based on its capabilities - weak AI, strong AI, and super AI.
 Weak AI - Focuses on one task and cannot perform beyond its limitations
(common in our daily lives)
 Strong AI - Can understand and learn any intellectual task that a human being can
(researchers are striving to reach strong AI)

 Super AI - Surpasses human intelligence and can perform any task better than a
human (still a concept)

AI is the main head of all the other technologies and at the same time, all technologies are co-
related to each other. ML, DL, NN all are the sub-parts of AI as shown in Figure.

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 Fig. AI Family
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence in
machines that are programmed to think and act like humans. It involves the
development of algorithms and computer programs that can perform tasks that
typically require human intelligence such as visual perception, speech recognition,
decision-making, and language translation. AI has the potential to revolutionize
many industries and has a wide range of applications, from virtual personal
assistants to self-driving cars.

Machine Learning (ML):

Machine Learning (ML) makes computers learn from data and experience to improve
their performance on some tasks or decision-making processes. ML uses statistics and
probability theory for this purpose. Machine learning uses algorithms to parse data,
learn from it, and make determinations without explicit programming. Machine
learning algorithms are often categorized as supervised or unsupervised.

Deep Learning (DL):

Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that uses multi-layered artificial neural
networks in which each layer doing mathematical transformations and feeding into the
next layer. The output from the last layer is the decision of the network for a given
input. The layers that are present between the input and output layers are known as the
hidden layers. Deep learning is a crucial technology to deliver state-of-the-art
accuracy behind object detection, speech recognition and language translation
driverless cars where analysis of large amounts of complex data is to be done.

Neural Networks (NN):

Neural Network is a massive collection of neurons that are interconnected in layers. The
weights and bias of each neuron in the network depend upon the nature of the output
decision of the entire network for all possible inputs. Neural networks are inspired by
biological neurons in the human brain and are composed of layers of connected nodes
called “neurons” that contain mathematical functions to process incoming data and predict
an output value. Artificial neural network learns by example, similarly to how humans

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learn from our parents, teachers, and peers. They consist of at least three layers: an input
layer, hidden layers, and an output layer.

HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE(AI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI), the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled

robot to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings. Artificial
intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially
computer systems. This technology is currently deployed in numerous sectors,
including transportation, manufacturing, finance, health care, education, and urban
planning.
Brief history of AI

Fig. Brief history of AI

1950: In the year of 1950, the time when it was started. At the beginning it was not
fully developed and not known to anyone about this technology.
1955: In the year of 1955 John McCarthy coined the term “Artificial Intelligence”. It
has been developing slowly with in some of the daily technologies.
1974: Between the year 1955- 1973 the AI technology become much faster used in the
computer systems and it is affordable. It gradually increases the use of AI by its
features.

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1980: It is known as the year of Artificial Intelligence. Expert Systems, which are
ASSI programs designed to mimic human expertise in specific domains, gained
popularity in 1980’s.
2000: in the year 2000 marked a significant turning point for AI, as the field
experienced a resurgence of interest and rapid progress. It is also known as Landmark
of AI establishment achieved.
Broad history of AI:
Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for researchers.
This technology is much older than you would imagine. Even there are the myths of
Mechanical men in Ancient Greek and Egyptian Myths. Following are some
milestones in the history of AI which defines the journey from the AI generation to till
date development.

Fig. Broad history of AI

Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.

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o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered
Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to
exhibit intelligent behaviour equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing test.
The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)
o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial
intelligence program "Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had
proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for
some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American
Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI
coined as an academic field.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve
mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which
was named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was
named as WABOT-1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI
winter refers to the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage
of funding from government for AI researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)
o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert
systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human
expert.
o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of
Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

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 The second AI winter (1987-1993)
o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.

o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to

high cost but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost
effective.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary
Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a
vacuum cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like
Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-present)

o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it
had to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could
understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly.
o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which
was able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in
the infamous "Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two
master debaters and also performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant
and which had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't
notice that she was talking with the machine.
Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big
data, and data science are now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like
Google, Facebook, IBM, and Amazon are working with AI and creating amazing
devices. The future of Artificial Intelligence is inspiring and will come with high
intelligence.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
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 Artificial Intelligence (AI), the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to
perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings. It is a simulation of human
intelligence into machines to do things that we would normally rely on humans

The advantages of Artificial intelligence that are useful to society are enormous and can
revolutionize any professional sector. As every technology has brighter version and also has a
darker version. Hence Artificial Intelligence also has some disadvantages that are harmful to
the society.

Advantages
 Reduction in Human Error: The phrase “human error” was born because humans
make mistakes from time to time. Computers, however, do not make these mistakes if they
are programmed properly. With Artificial intelligence, the decisions are taken from the
previously gathered information applying a certain set of algorithms. So, errors are reduced
and the chance of reaching accuracy with a greater degree of precision is a possibility.
Example: In Weather Forecasting using AI they have reduced the majority of human error.
 Takes risks instead of Humans: This is one of the biggest advantages of Artificial
intelligence. We can overcome many risky limitations of humans by developing an AI Robot
which in turn can do the risky things for us., it can be used effectively in any kind of natural
or man-made disasters. AI Robots can be used in such situations where human intervention
can be hazardous
Example: Let it be going to mars, defuse a bomb, explore the deepest parts of oceans, fire
accidents, mining for coal and oil where AI Robots play very important role.
Available 24x7: An Average human will work for 4–6 hours a day excluding the breaks.
Humans are built in such a way to get some time out for refreshing themselves and get ready
for a new day of work and they even have weekly offed to stay intact with their work-life and
personal life. But using AI we can make machines work 24x7 without any breaks and they
don’t even get bored, unlike humans.
Example: Educational Institutes and Helpline centers are getting many queries and issues
which can be handled effectively using AI.
 Helping in Repetitive Jobs: In our day-to-day work, we will be performing many
repetitive works like sending a thanking mail, verifying certain documents for errors and
many more things. Using artificial intelligence, we can productively automate these everyday

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 tasks and can even remove “boring” tasks for humans and free them up to be increasingly
creative.

Example: Using AI Cognitive Automation, the owner can speed up the process of verifying
the documents in banking sector by which both the customers and the owner will be
benefited.
 Digital Assistance: Some of the highly advanced organizations use digital assistants to
interact with users which saves the need for human resources. The digital assistants also used
in many websites to provide things that users want. We can chat with them about what we are
looking for.
Example: We all know that organizations have a customer support team that needs to clarify
the doubts and queries of the customers via a setup of Voice bot or Chatbot in such a way that
it’s become hard to determine that we’re chatting with a chatbot or a human being.
 Faster and Unbiased Decisions: Using AI alongside other technologies we can make
machines take decisions faster than a human and carry out actions quicker. While taking a
decision human will analyze many factors both emotionally and practically but AI-powered
machine works on what it is programmed and delivers the results in a faster way.
Example: We all have played Chess games in Windows. It is nearly impossible to beat CPU
in the hard mode because of the AI behind that game
 Daily Applications: Daily applications such as Apple’s Siri, Window’s Cortana,
Google’s OK Google are frequently used in our daily routine whether it is for searching a
location, taking a selfie, making a phone call, replying to a mail and many more, anticipate
todays weather and the days ahead.
Example: If we say “OK Google where is Visakhapatnam”. It will show you
Visakhapatnam’s location on google map and the best path between you and Visakhapatnam.
 Medical Field
AI has also made significant contributions to the field of medicine, with applications ranging
from diagnosis and treatment to drug discovery and clinical trials. AI-powered tools can help
doctors and researchers to analyse patient data, identify potential health risks, and develop
personalized treatment plan.
Example: Recently doctors can predict breast cancer in the woman at earlier stages using
advanced AI-based technologies
 New Inventions: AI is powering many inventions in almost every domain which will
help humans solve the majority of complex problems.

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 Example: Pattern Recognition and classification of images like medical, aerial, face, finger
print, satellite, Radar etc.
, Disadvantages
 High Costs of Creation: As AI is updating every day the hardware and software need to get
updated with time to meet the latest requirements. Machines need repairing and
maintenance which need plenty of costs. It’ s creation requires huge costs as they are very
complex machines.
 Making Humans Lazy: AI is making humans lazy with its applications automating the
majority of the work. Humans tend to get addicted to these inventions which can cause a
problem to future generations.
 Unemployment: As AI is replacing the majority of the repetitive tasks and other works with
robots, human interference is becoming less which will cause a major problem in the
employment standards. Every organization is looking to replace the minimum qualified
individuals with AI robots which can do similar work with more efficiency.
 No Emotions: There is no doubt that machines are much better when it comes to working
efficiently but they cannot replace the human connection that makes the team. Machines
cannot develop a bond with humans which is an essential attribute when comes to Team
Management.
 No Creativity: A big disadvantage of AI is that it cannot learn to think outside the box. AI
is capable of learning over time with pre-fed data and past experiences, but cannot be
creative in its approach. Hence Machines can perform only those tasks which they are
designed or programmed to do, anything out of that they tend to crash or give irrelevant
outputs which could be a major backdrop.
 No Ethics: Ethics and morality are important human features that can be difficult to
incorporate into an AI. The rapid progress of AI has raised a number of concerns that one
day, AI will grow uncontrollably, and eventually wipe out humanity. This moment is
referred to as the AI singularity.
 No Improvement: Humans cannot develop artificial intelligence because it is a technology
based on pre-loaded facts and experience. AI is proficient at repeatedly carrying out the
same task, but if we want any adjustments or improvements, we must manually alter the
codes. AI cannot be accessed and utilized akin to human intelligence, but it can store infinite
data.

Applications of AI

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 Artificial Intelligence (AI), the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to
perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings. Artificial intelligence is the
simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. This
technology is currently deployed in numerous sectors, including transportation,
manufacturing, finance, health care, education, and urban planning.
Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It is becoming essential
for today's time because it can solve complex problems with an efficient way in multiple
industries, such as Healthcare, entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily
life more comfortable and faster.
Following are some sectors which have the application of Artificial Intelligence:

Fig. Applications of AI
 AI in Healthcare
In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare industry
and going to have a significant impact on this industry. Healthcare Industries are
applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than humans. AI can help doctors with
diagnoses and can inform when patients are worsening so that medical help can reach to
the patient before hospitalization.

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 AI in Gaming
AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like
chess, where the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.
 AI in Finance
AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is
implementing g automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and
machine learning into financial processes.
 AI in Data Security
The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very
rapidly in the digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure.
Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2 Platform, are used to determine software bug and
cyber-attacks in a better way.
 AI in Social Media
Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user
profiles, which need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize
and manage massive amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data to identify the latest
trends, hashtag, and requirement of different users.
 AI in Travel & Transport
AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing various
travel related works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels,
flights, and best routes to the customers. Travel industries are using AI-powered
chatbots which can make human-like interaction with customers for better and fast
response.
 AI in Automotive Industry
Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for
better performance. Such as Tesla has introduced Tesla Bot, an intelligent virtual
assistant.
Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can
make your journey more safe and secure.
 AI in Robotics:
Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are
programmed such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI,
we can create intelligent robots which can perform tasks with their own experiences
without pre-programmed.

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  Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent
Humanoid robot named as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and
behave like humans.
 AI in Entertainment
We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some
entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI algorithms,
these services show the recommendations for programs or shows.
 AI in Agriculture
Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for best
result. Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field.
Agriculture is applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive
analysis. AI in agriculture can be very helpful for farmers.
 AI in E-commerce
AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming more
demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated
products with recommended size, color, or even brand.
 AI in education:
AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can
communicate with students as a teaching assistant. AI in the future can be work as a
personal virtual tutor for students, which will be accessible easily at any time and any
place.
 AI in Astronomy
Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI
technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin,
etc.
Approaches of AI:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) encompasses various approaches or paradigms that aim to
simulate human intelligence and decision-making processes. These approaches can be
broadly categorized into eight types, each with its own techniques, methodologies, and
applications. Here are the main approaches to AI:
1. Symbolic or Rule-Based AI: This approach involves using predefined rules and
logic to solve problems. Rules are typically represented in the form of "if-then"
statements, where specific conditions lead to certain actions or conclusions.

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 Examples: MYCIN for medical diagnosis, CLIPS for building rule-based systems,
and production systems used in various decision support applications.
2. Statistical AI: Statistical AI, or machine learning, focuses on learning from data and
making predictions or decisions based on statistical models. It deals with uncertainty
and variability in data.
Examples: Supervised learning algorithms like linear regression and neural networks,
unsupervised learning techniques such as clustering and association rule mining, and
reinforcement learning for training agents to make sequential decisions.
3. Connectionist AI: This approach is inspired by the structure and function of the
human brain, particularly neural networks. It involves building networks of artificial
neurons that can learn from and adapt to data.
Examples: Deep learning models such as Convolutional Neural Neworks (CNNs) for
image recognition, Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) for sequence prediction, and
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) for generating new content.
4. Evolutionary AI: Evolutionary AI draws inspiration from Darwinian principles of
natural selection and genetics. It uses algorithms that evolve and improve solutions
over successive generations.
Examples: Genetic algorithms (GA) for optimization problems, evolutionary
programming (EP) for designing complex systems, and genetic programming (GP) for
evolving computer programs.
5. Bayesian Networks: Bayesian networks are probabilistic graphical models that
represent relationships between variables using a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG).
They are used to model uncertainty and make decisions under uncertainty.
Examples: Applications in medical diagnosis, risk assessment, and predictive
modelling where probabilistic reasoning is crucial.
6. Fuzzy Systems: Fuzzy logic deals with reasoning that is approximate rather than
precise, allowing for degrees of truth instead of strict true/false values. It is useful in
situations where boundaries are vague or uncertain.
Examples: Control systems in automotive applications, consumer electronics, and
expert systems where decision-making involves imprecise or uncertain data.
7. Expert Systems: These are AI systems that emulate the decision-making ability of a
human expert. They use a knowledge base of human expertise and an inference
engine to reason through problems and provide solutions.

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 Examples: DENDRAL for chemical analysis to detect unknown organic molecules,
MYCIN for backward chaining to find bacteria causing infections, PXDES to
determine the type and level of lung cancer and CaDeT to detect cancer at early
stages.
8. Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP enables computers to understand,
interpret, and generate human language in a way that is meaningful. It involves
techniques like sentiment analysis, machine translation, and information retrieval.
Examples: Virtual assistants like Siri and Google Assistant, language translation
systems like Google Translate, and sentiment analysis tools used in social media
monitoring.
These approaches are often used in combination or integrated into hybrid AI systems to
leverage their respective strengths and address different aspects of complex problems. The
choice of approach depends on factors such as the nature of the problem, available data,
computational resources, and desired outcomes in a given application.
Symbolic Reasoning (Or) Rules Based System.
Reasoning can be defined as the algebraic manipulation of historical knowledge in order
to answer a new question. This manipulation can include a search in an algebraic space
of different solutions. The reasoning system has the following features:

1. It requires a knowledge base (a relational, non-relational or graph database). See the

family tree in following figure for an example.

Figure: A family tree

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 2. It requires a collection of symbolic facts, rules and relationships, like the one
shown in the Figure below.
3. It requires an inference engine that takes a question or query and generates an
answer by using the set of rules and the knowledge-base. For example, if I ask
“who is the maternal great-uncle of Freya?”, the inference engine will search for
the solution in the space of clauses in the following Figure and apply deduction
rules such as substitution.

Figure: Reasoning about the family tree

The first selection will be the last clause (in blue in the figure). The first predicate of this
rule is maternal grandmother (Freya,?). By checking the third clause, we see that “maternal
grandmother” has the conjunction of predicates mother(X,Z), mother(Z,Y), which basically
says “if Y is the mother of Z and Z is the mother of X, then Y is the maternal grandmother
of X.” So the engine will first find the maternal grandmother of Freya using the third
clause, which is Charlotte, then the mother of Charlotte, which is Lindsey and finally the
son of Lindsey, which is Fergus, who is the maternal great-uncle of Freya. As we see that ,

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Symbolic reasoning with Rules based AI involves a searching process, researchers have
proposed different searching algorithms.

Knowledge Representation:

Knowledge representation in Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the techniques and

structures used to store and manipulate knowledge within AI systems. Effective knowledge
representation allows AI systems to reason, make decisions, and solve problems based on the
information they have acquired. Here are some key aspects of knowledge representation in
AI:
1. Symbols and Ontologies: Traditional AI approaches often use symbolic
representations, where knowledge is expressed using symbols, predicates, and rules.
Ontologies provide a formal structure for organizing knowledge, defining concepts,
and specifying relationships between them (e.g., in semantic web technologies).
2. Semantic Networks and Frames: Semantic networks represent knowledge as a
network of interconnected nodes, where nodes represent concepts and links represent
relationships between them. Frames extend this concept by organizing knowledge into
structured units (frames) containing slots for properties and values.
3. Logic-Based Representation: Logic-based representations use formal logic (such as
predicate logic or first-order logic) to represent and reason about knowledge. This
approach allows for precise inference and deduction based on logical rules.
4. Probabilistic and Uncertain Knowledge: In domains where uncertainty exists, such
as in medical diagnosis or natural language understanding, probabilistic
representations (e.g., Bayesian networks) are used to model uncertain knowledge and
make probabilistic inferences.
5. Connectionist Representations: In neural networks and connectionist models,
knowledge is represented implicitly through patterns of neuron activations and
connection weights. These networks learn from data rather than explicit programming
of rules, allowing them to capture complex patterns and relationships.
6. Knowledge Graphs: Knowledge graphs organize knowledge as a graph structure,
where entities are nodes and relationships are edges. This representation is
particularly useful for integrating diverse sources of information and performing
graph-based reasoning.

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 7. Frame-Based Systems: Frame-based systems organize knowledge into hierarchical
structures called frames, which encapsulate objects, attributes, and relationships. This
representation supports inheritance and default reasoning.
8. Natural Language Understanding: Representing knowledge in natural language
understanding involves capturing the semantics and context of human language,
enabling AI systems to comprehend and generate human-like text.
9. Hybrid Approaches: Many modern AI systems combine multiple knowledge
representation techniques to leverage the strengths of each approach, addressing the
complexities and requirements of different domains and tasks.
10. Learning and Adaptation: Knowledge representation also includes mechanisms for
learning and adaptation, where AI systems update their knowledge based on new data
or experiences, improving their performance over time.
Effective knowledge representation is crucial for developing AI systems that can understand,
reason about, and interact with complex real-world environments and tasks. The choice of
representation often depends on the specific requirements, domain characteristics, and the
capabilities of the AI system being developed.
Architecture of AI:
The architecture of Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems generally encompasses several key
components or layers, each contributing to different aspects of the system's functioning.
Here's a typical blocks of AI architecture:
1. Data Input: This is where the system receives input data, which could be structured
(like databases) or unstructured (like text or images).
2. Data Preprocessing: Before the data can be used effectively, it often needs to be
cleaned, normalized, and transformed into a suitable format for further processing.
3. Feature Extraction: In this stage, relevant features or patterns are extracted from the
pre-processed data. This step is crucial as it determines what aspects of the data the AI
will focus on.
4. AI Model Selection: Choosing the appropriate AI model depends on the task at hand
(e.g., neural networks for complex pattern recognition, decision trees for classification
tasks).
5. Model Training: The selected model is trained using labeled data (in supervised
learning) or through exploration (in reinforcement learning). During training, the
model learns to map inputs to outputs.

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 6. Evaluation: The trained model's performance is evaluated on a separate dataset to
assess its accuracy, precision, recall, etc. This step helps in refining the model and
identifying any issues.
7. Deployment: Once the model is trained and evaluated, it is deployed into a
production environment where it can receive new data and make predictions or
decisions.
8. Monitoring and Improvement: Post-deployment, the AI system needs to be
monitored to ensure it performs as expected. Performance metrics are continually
assessed, and the model may be retrained periodically with new data to improve
accuracy and relevance.
9. Decision Making/Action: Based on the model's predictions or recommendations,
decisions are made or actions are taken. This could involve automated actions or
human-in-the-loop decision-making.
10. Feedback Loop: In many AI systems, the outcomes of decisions are fed back into the
system as new data, improving the system's performance over time through iterative
learning.
These components collectively form the architecture of an AI system, whether it's a simple
rule-based system or a complex deep learning model. The specific architecture can vary
widely based on the application, complexity of tasks, and available data.

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Expert Systems:
An expert system is a computer program that is designed to solve complex problems and to
provide decision-making ability like a human expert. It performs this by extracting
knowledge from its knowledge base using the reasoning and inference rules according to the
user queries.
The expert system is a part of AI, and the first ES was developed in the year 1970, which was
the first successful approach of artificial intelligence. It solves the most complex issue as an
expert by extracting the knowledge stored in its knowledge base. The system helps in
decision making for complex problems using both facts and heuristics like a human
expert. It is called so because it contains the expert knowledge of a specific domain and can
solve any complex problem of that particular domain. These systems are designed for a
specific domain, such as medicine, science, etc.
The performance of an expert system is based on the expert's knowledge stored in its
knowledge base. The more knowledge stored in the KB, the more that system improves its
performance. One of the common examples of an ES is a suggestion of spelling errors while
typing in the Google search box.

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 Fig. Architecture of Expert System
It is important to remember that an expert system is not used to replace the human experts;
instead, it is used to assist the human in making a complex decision. These systems do not have
human capabilities of thinking and work on the basis of the knowledge base of the particular
domain.
The architecture of an expert system consists of the following components:

Figure: Components of Expert System

Knowledge Base (KB): repository of special heuristics or rules that direct the use of
knowledge, facts (productions). It contains the knowledge necessary for understanding,
formulating, & problem solving.
Working Memory (Blackboard): if forward chaining used, it describes the current
problem & record intermediate results. Records Intermediate Hypothesis & Decisions such
as Plan, Agenda, Solution.
Inference Engine: the deduction system used to infer results from user input & KB. It is
the brain of the ES, the control structure (rule interpreter). It provides methodology for

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 reasoning
Explanation Subsystem (Justifier): Traces responsibility & explains the ES behaviour by
interactively answering question: Why?, How?, What?, Where?, When?, Who?
User Interface: interfaces with user through Natural Language Processing (NLP), or
menus & graphics. Acts as Language Processor for friendly, problem-oriented
communication
Shell = Inference Engine + User Interface
The Human Elements in ES is an Expert: Has the special knowledge, judgement,
experience and methods to give advice and solve problems. Provides knowledge about task
performance
Knowledge Engineer: Usually also the System Builder. Helps the expert(s) structure the
problem area by interpreting and integrating human answers to questions, drawing
analogies, posing counter examples, and bringing to light conceptual difficulties. The
Expert & the knowledge Engineer should Anticipate Users’ needs & Limitations when
designing Expert Systems
End-User: This is a particular person or a group of people who may not be experts, and
working on the expert system needs the solution or advice for his queries, which are complex.

Examples of the Expert System:

o DENDRAL: It was an artificial intelligence project that was made as a chemical
analysis expert system. It was used in organic chemistry to detect unknown organic
molecules with the help of their mass spectra and knowledge base of chemistry.
o MYCIN: It was one of the earliest backward chaining expert systems that was
designed to find the bacteria causing infections like bacteraemia and meningitis. It
was also used for the recommendation of antibiotics and the diagnosis of blood
clotting diseases.
o PXDES: It is an expert system that is used to determine the type and level of lung
cancer. To determine the disease, it takes a picture from the upper body, which looks
like the shadow. This shadow identifies the type and degree of harm.
o CaDeT: The CaDet expert system is a diagnostic support system that can detect
cancer at early stages.

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Characteristics of Expert System
o High Performance: The expert system provides high performance for solving any
type of complex problem of a specific domain with high efficiency and accuracy.
o Understandable: It responds in a way that can be easily understandable by the user.
It can take input in human language and provides the output in the same way.
o Reliable: It is much reliable for generating an efficient and accurate output.
o Highly responsive: ES provides the result for any complex query within a very short
period of time.
Need of Expert System:
Before using any technology, we must have an idea about why to use that technology and
hence the same for the ES. Although we have human experts in every field, then what is the
need to develop a computer-based system. So below are the points that are describing the
need of the ES:
 No memory Limitations: It can store as much data as required and can memorize it
at the time of its application. But for human experts, there are some limitations to
memorize all things at every time.
 High Efficiency: If the knowledge base is updated with the correct knowledge, then it
provides a highly efficient output, which may not be possible for a human.
 Expertise in a domain: There are lots of human experts in each domain, and they all
have different skills, different experiences, and different skills, so it is not easy to get
a final output for the query. But if we put the knowledge gained from human experts
into the expert system, then it provides an efficient output by mixing all the facts and
knowledge
 Not affected by emotions: These systems are not affected by human emotions such
as fatigue, anger, depression, anxiety, etc.. Hence the performance remains constant.
 High security: These systems provide high security to resolve any query.
 Considers all the facts: To respond to any query, it checks and considers all the
available facts and provides the result accordingly. But it is possible that a human
expert may not consider some facts due to any reason.
 Regular updates improve the performance: If there is an issue in the result
provided by the expert systems, we can improve the performance of the system by
updating the knowledge base.
Capabilities of the Expert System

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 o Advising: It is capable of advising the human being for the query of any domain from
the particular ES.
o Provide decision-making capabilities: It provides the capability of decision making
in any domain, such as for making any financial decision, decisions in medical
science, etc.
o Demonstrate a device: It is capable of demonstrating any new products such as its
features, specifications, how to use that product, etc.
o Problem-solving: It has problem-solving capabilities.
o Explaining a problem: It is also capable of providing a detailed description of an
input problem.
o Interpreting the input: It is capable of interpreting the input given by the user.
o Predicting results: It can be used for the prediction of a result.
o Diagnosis: An ES designed for the medical field is capable of diagnosing a disease
without using multiple components as it already contains various inbuilt medical
tools.
Advantages of Expert System
o These systems are highly reproducible.
o They can be used for risky places where the human presence is not safe.
o Error possibilities are less if the KB contains correct knowledge.
o The performance of these systems remains steady as it is not affected by emotions,
tension, or fatigue.
o They provide a very high speed to respond to a particular query.
Limitations of Expert System
o The response of the expert system may get wrong if the knowledge base contains the
wrong information.
o Like a human being, it cannot produce a creative output for different scenarios.
o Its maintenance and development costs are very high.
o Knowledge acquisition for designing is much difficult.
o For each domain, we require a specific ES, which is one of the big limitations.
o It cannot learn from itself and hence requires manual updates.
Applications of Expert System

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 o In designing and manufacturing domain
It can be broadly used for designing and manufacturing physical devices such as
camera lenses and automobiles.
o In the knowledge domain
These systems are primarily used for publishing the relevant knowledge to the users.
The two popular ES used for this domain is an advisor and a tax advisor.
o In the finance domain
In the finance industries, it is used to detect any type of possible fraud, suspicious
activity, and advise bankers that if they should provide loans for business or not.
o In the diagnosis and troubleshooting of devices
In medical diagnosis, the ES system is used, and it was the first area where these
systems were used.
o Planning and Scheduling
The expert systems can also be used for planning and scheduling some particular
tasks for achieving the goal of that task.
Artificial Neural Network (ANN):

An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a mathematical model that tries to simulate the
structure and functionalities of biological neural networks. Basic building block of every
artificial neural network is artificial neuron, that is, a simple mathematical function. Such a
model has three simple sets of rules: multiplication, summation and activation. At the
entrance of artificial neuron, the inputs are weighted what means that every input value is
multiplied with individual weight. In the middle section of artificial neuron is sum function
that sums all weighted inputs and bias. At the exit of artificial neuron the sum of previously
weighted inputs and bias is passing through activation function that is also called transfer
function.

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 Fig. Artificial Neuron (AN)

Fig. Artificial Neural Network (ANN)

Biological Neural Network (BNN)

A Biological Neural Network (BNN) is a group of biological neurons that are connected
together. Basic element of every tissue in Biological Neural Network is a Biological Neuron.
Which is an electrically excitable cell that communicates with other cells via specialized
connections called synapses. A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and a
single axon. The soma is usually compact. The axon and dendrites are filaments that extrude
from it. Dendrites typically branch profusely and extend a few hundred micrometres from the
soma. The axon leaves the soma at a swelling called the axon hillock, and travels for as far as
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1 meter in humans or more in other species. It branches but usually maintains a constant
diameter. At the farthest tip of the axon's branches are axon terminals, where the neuron can
transmit a signal across the synapse to another cell. Neurons may lack dendrites or have no
axon. The term neurite is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly when the
cell is undifferentiated.

Fig. Biological Neuron (BN)

Fig. Biological Neural Network (BNN)

Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function.

 Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect
the cells of the sensory organs, and they send signals to the spinal cord or
brain.
 Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to control

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 everything from muscle contractions to glandular output.
 Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the
brain or spinal cord.

Comparison of ANN Vs BNN

Parameters Artificial Neural Network(ANN) Biological Neural Network(BNN)

Artificial Neuron: Simple Biological Neuron: Electrically

Neuron Mathematical Function having Inputs, Excitable Cell having Dendrites,
Weight, Node, output Synapse, Nucleus, Axon.
Three Rules are: Multiplication, Three Rules are: Multiplication,
Addition, Activation Function Addition, Activation Function

Neural
Network

BNN of the human brain consists of

ANN consists of hundreds, thousands,
billions. This number varies from
Size and count millions and billions. This number varies
human to human and animal to
from design to design.
animal.

Signal
transport and ANN works synchronously BNN works asynchronously
processing

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Processing Slower in speed (milli seconds)
speed of Faster in speed (nano seconds)
neuron

Network
Simple Tree structures Highly complicated structures
Topology

Signals travel at different speeds from

Signals travel at same speed from one layer person to person depending on their
Speed of
to another layer and as ANN do not sex, age, height, temperature, medical
signal flow
experience fatigue like BNN, output can be condition, lack of sleep etc
calculated accurately.

Fault Due to ANN topology, Fault intolerant Due to BNN topology, Fault
Tolerance Tolerant

Needs low power i.e an adult brain

Needs high power i.e a single Nvidia operates on about 20 watts and
Power GeForce Titan X GPU runs on 250 humans can still operate on giving
consumption watts. energic foods & drinks.

A predefined model, where no further Do not understand how brains learn,

neurons or connections can be added or or how redundant connections store
Learning removed. Only the weights of the and recall information. We are
connections and bias can change during building on information stored in the
training as per stored programs brain as per self-learning

Field of ANN Applications are specialized BNN Applications are not

Application specialized, can learn new tasks also

Storage Stores information in continuous Stores information in synapse (i.e

Capacity memory locations interconnections)

Training Use gradient descent Use something different

Algorithm

Control Simple Complex

mechanism,
Flexibility, and

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 Adaptability

Organization of the Human brain:

The brain is an amazing three-pound organ that controls all functions of the body,
interprets information from the outside world, and embodies the essence of the mind and
soul. Intelligence, creativity, emotion, and memory are a few of the many things governed by
the brain. Protected within the skull, the brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and
brainstem. The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell, touch, taste,
and hearing - often many at one time. It assembles the messages in a way that has meaning
for us, and can store that information in our memory. The brain controls our thoughts,
memory and speech, movement of the arms and legs, and the function of many organs within
our body. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The
peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of spinal nerves that branch from the spinal
cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain. The brain is composed of the cerebrum,
cerebellum, and brainstem
Cerebrum: is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It
performs higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech,
reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement.
Cerebellum: is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle movements,
maintain posture, and balance.

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 Brainstem: acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord.
It performs many automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake
and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.

Right brain – Left brain: The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left
hemispheres. They are joined by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum that transmits
messages from one side to the other. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
If a stroke occurs on the right side of the brain, your left arm or leg may be weak or
paralyzed.
Not all functions of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the left hemisphere controls
speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The right hemisphere controls creativity,
spatial ability, artistic, and musical skills. The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and
language in about 92% of people. The cerebral hemispheres have distinct fissures, which
divide the brain into lobes. Each hemisphere has 4 lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal, and
occipital. Each lobe may be divided, once again, into areas that serve very specific functions.
It’s important to understand that each lobe of the brain does not function alone. There are
very complex relationships between the lobes of the brain and between the right and left
hemispheres.
The Basic Building Blocks of Artificial Neural Networks:
Processing of ANN depends upon the following three building blocks:
1. Network Topology
2. Adjustments of Weights or Learning
3. Activation Functions

1. Network Topology: A network topology is the arrangement of a network along with its
nodes and connecting lines. According to the topology, ANN can be classified as the
following kinds:

A. Feed forward Network: It is a non-recurrent network having processing units/nodes

in layers and all the nodes in a layer are connected with the nodes of the previous
layers. The connection has different weights upon them. There is no feedback loop
means the signal can only flow in one direction, from input to output. It may be divided
into the following two types:

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  Single layer feed forward network: The concept is of feed forward ANN
having only one weighted layer. In other words, we can say the input layer is
fully connected to the output layer.

 Multilayer feed forward network: The concept is of feed forward ANN

having more than one weighted layer. As this network has one or more layers
between the input and the output layer, it is called hidden layers.

B. Feedback Network: As the name suggests, a feedback network has feedback paths,
which means the signal can flow in both directions using loops. This makes it a non-
linear dynamic system, which changes continuously until it reaches a state of
equilibrium. It may be divided into the following types:

 Recurrent networks: They are feedback networks with closed loops. Following are
the two types of recurrent networks.

 Fully recurrent network: It is the simplest neural network architecture because all
nodes are connected to all other nodes and each node works as both input and output.

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  Jordan network − It is a closed loop network in which the output will go to the input
again as feedback as shown in the following diagram.

2. Adjustments of Weights or Learning: Learning, in artificial neural network, is the

method of modifying the weights of connections between the neurons of a specified network.
Learning in ANN can be classified into three categories namely supervised learning,
unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning.

Supervised Learning: As the name suggests, this type of learning is done under the
supervision of a teacher. This learning process is dependent. During the training of ANN
under supervised learning, the input vector is presented to the network, which will give an
output vector. This output vector is compared with the desired output vector. An error signal
is generated, if there is a difference between the actual output and the desired output vector.
On the basis of this error signal, the weights are adjusted until the actual output is matched
with the desired output.

Unsupervised Learning: As the name suggests, this type of learning is done without the
supervision of a teacher. This learning process is independent. During the training of ANN
under unsupervised learning, the input vectors of similar type are combined to form clusters.

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 When a new input pattern is applied, then the neural network gives an output response
indicating the class to which the input pattern belongs. There is no feedback from the
environment as to what should be the desired output and if it is correct or incorrect. Hence, in
this type of learning, the network itself must discover the patterns and features from the input
data, and the relation for the input data over the output.

Reinforcement Learning: As the name suggests, this type of learning is used to reinforce or
strengthen the network over some critic information. This learning process is similar to
supervised learning, however we might have very less information. During the training of
network under reinforcement learning, the network receives some feedback from the
environment. This makes it somewhat similar to supervised learning. However, the feedback
obtained here is evaluative not instructive, which means there is no teacher as in supervised
learning. After receiving the feedback, the network performs adjustments of the weights to
get better critic information in future.

3. Activation Functions: An activation function is a mathematical equation that determines

the output of each element (perceptron or neuron) in the neural network. It takes in the
input from each neuron and transforms it into an output, usually between one and zero or
between -1 and one. It may be defined as the extra force or effort applied over the input to
obtain an exact output. In ANN, we can also apply activation functions over the input to get
the exact output. Followings are some activation functions of interest:

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i) Linear Activation Function: It is also called the identity function as it performs no input
editing. It can be defined as: f(x) = x
ii) Sigmoid Activation Function: It is of two type as follows −

 Binary sigmoidal function: This activation function performs input editing between
0 and 1. It is positive in nature. It is always bounded, which means its output cannot
be less than 0 and more than 1. It is also strictly increasing in nature, which means
more the input higher would be the output.

 Bipolar sigmoidal function: This activation function performs input editing between
-1 and 1. It can be positive or negative in nature. It is always bounded, which means
its output cannot be less than -1 and more than 1. It is also strictly increasing in
nature like sigmoid function.

Activation Function in Neural Network:

In a neural network, inputs, which are typically real values, are fed into the neurons in the
network. Each neuron has a weight, and the inputs are multiplied by the weight and fed into
the activation function. Each neuron’s output is the input of the neurons in the next layer of
the network, and so the inputs cascade through multiple activation functions until
eventually, the output layer generates a prediction. Neural networks rely on nonlinear
activation functions—the derivative of the activation function helps the network learn
through the backpropagation process.

SOME COMMON ACTIVATION FUNCTIONS:

1. The sigmoid function has a smooth gradient and outputs values between zero and
one. For very high or low values of the input parameters, the network can be very
slow to reach a prediction, called the vanishing gradient problem.

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2. The TanH function is zero-centered making it easier to model inputs that are
strongly negative strongly positive or neutral.

3. The ReLu function is highly computationally efficient but is not able to process
inputs that approach zero or negative.

4. The Leaky ReLu function has a small positive slope in its negative area, enabling it
to process zero or negative values.

5. The Parametric ReLu function allows the negative slope to be learned, performing
backpropagation to learn the most effective slope for zero and negative input values.

6. Softmax is a special activation function use for output neurons. It normalizes outputs
for each class between 0 and 1, and returns the probability that the input belongs to a
specific class.

7. Swish is a new activation function discovered by Google researchers. It performs

better than ReLu with a similar level of computational efficiency.

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36
Applications of ANN

1. Data Mining: Discovery of meaningful patterns (knowledge) from large volumes of

data.
2. Expert Systems: A computer program for decision making that simulates thought
process of a human expert.
3. Fuzzy Logic: Theory of approximate reasoning.
4. Artificial Life: Evolutionary Computation, Swarm Intelligence.
5. Artificial Immune System: A computer program based on the biological immune
system.
6. Medical: At the moment, the research is mostly on modelling parts of the human body
and recognizing diseases from various scans (e.g. cardiograms, CAT scans, ultrasonic
scans, etc.).
7. Computer Science: Researchers in quest of artificial intelligence have created spin
offs like dynamic programming, object-oriented programming, symbolic
programming, intelligent storage management systems and many more such tools.
8. Aviation: Airlines use expert systems in planes to monitor atmospheric conditions and
system status. The plane can be put on autopilot once a course is set for the
destination.
9. Weather Forecast: Neural networks are used for predicting weather conditions.
Previous data is fed to a neural network, which learns the pattern and uses that
knowledge to predict weather patterns.
10. Neural Networks in business: Business is a diverted field with several general areas of
specialization such as accounting or financial analysis. Almost any neural network
application would fit into one business area or financial analysis.
11. Data Mining: There is also a strong potential for using neural networks for database
mining, which is, searching for patterns implicit within the explicitly stored
information in databases.
12. Marketing: There is a marketing application which has been integrated with a neural
network system. The Airline Marketing Tactician (a trademark abbreviated as AMT)
is a computer system made of various intelligent technologies including expert
systems.

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 13. Credit Evaluation: The HNC company, founded by Robert Hecht-Nielsen, has
developed several neural network applications. One of them is the Credit Scoring
system which increases the profitability of the existing model up to 27%.

Advantages of ANN:
1. Adaptive learning: An ability to learn how to do tasks based on the data given for training
or initial experience.
2. Self-Organisation: An ANN can create its own organisation or representation of the
information it receives during learning time.
3. Real Time Operation: ANN computations may be carried out in parallel, and special
hardware devices are being designed and manufactured which take advantage of this
capability.
4. Pattern recognition: is a powerful technique for harnessing the information in the data and
generalizing about it. Neural nets learn to recognize the patterns which exist in the data set.
5. The system is developed through learning rather than programming. Neural nets teach
themselves the patterns in the data freeing the analyst for more interesting work.
6. Neural networks are flexible in a changing environment. Although neural networks may
take some time to learn a sudden drastic change they are excellent at adapting to constantly
changing information.
7. Neural networks can build informative models whenever conventional approaches fail.
Because neural networks can handle very complex interactions they can easily model data
which is too difficult to model with traditional approaches such as inferential statistics or
programming logic.
8. Performance of neural networks is at least as good as classical statistical modelling, and
better on most problems. The neural networks build models that are more reflective of the
structure of the data in significantly less time.
Limitations of ANN:

In this technological era everything has Merits and some Demerits in others words there is a
Limitation with every system which makes this ANN technology weak in some points. The
various Limitations of ANN are:-

1) ANN is not a daily life general purpose problem solver.

2) There is no structured methodology available in ANN.

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3) There is no single standardized paradigm for ANN development.
4) The Output Quality of an ANN may be unpredictable.
5) Many ANN Systems does not describe how they solve problems.
6) Black box Nature
7) Greater computational burden.
8) Proneness to over fitting.
9) Empirical nature of model development.
Artificial Neural Network Terminologies:

Here is a glossary of basic terms you should be familiar with before learning the details of
neural networks.

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1. Inputs: Source data fed into the neural network, with the goal of making a decision
or prediction about the data. Inputs to a neural network are typically a set of real
values; each value is fed into one of the neurons in the input layer.

2. Training Set: A set of inputs for which the correct outputs are known, used to train
the neural network.

3. Outputs: Neural networks generate their predictions in the form of a set of real
values or Boolean decisions. Each output value is generated by one of the neurons in
the output layer.

4. Neuron/perceptron: The basic unit of the neural network. Accepts an input and
generates a prediction. Each neuron accepts part of the input and passes it through the
activation function. Activation functions: Common activation functions are sigmoid, TanH
and ReLu. Activation functions help generate output values within an acceptable range, and
their non-linear form is crucial for training the network.

5. Weight Space: Each neuron is given a numeric weight. The weights, together with the
activation function, define each neuron’s output. Neural networks are trained by fine-tuning
weights, to discover the optimal set of weights that generates the most accurate prediction.

6. Forward Pass: The forward pass takes the inputs, passes them through the network and
allows each neuron to react to a fraction of the input. Neurons generate their outputs and
pass them on to the next layer, until eventually the network generates an output.

7. Error Function: Defines how far the actual output of the current model is from the correct
output. When training the model, the objective is to minimize the error function and bring
output as close as possible to the correct value.

8. Backpropagation: In order to discover the optimal weights for the neurons, we perform a
backward pass, moving back from the network’s prediction to the neurons that generated
that prediction. This is called backpropagation. Backpropagation tracks the derivatives of
the activation functions in each successive neuron, to find weights that bring the loss
function to a minimum, which will generate the best prediction. This is a mathematical
process called gradient descent.

9. Bias and Variance: When training neural networks, like in other machine learning
techniques, we try to balance between bias and variance. Bias measures how well the model
fits the training set—able to correctly predict the known outputs of the training examples.
Variance measures how well the model works with unknown inputs that were not available
during training

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10. Hyperparameters: A hyper parameter is a setting that affects the structure or
operation of the neural network. In real deep learning projects, tuning hyper
parameters is the primary way to build a network that provides accurate predictions
for a certain problem. Common hyper parameters include the number of hidden
layers, the activation function, and how many times (epochs) training should be
repeated.

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