Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

Unit 1. Matter: Elements and compounds

1.- Subatomic particles ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1.- The Discovery of the Electron ................................................................................................. 2
1.2.- The discovery of protons .......................................................................................................... 2
1.3.- The Discovery of Neutrons ...................................................................................................... 2
2.- Atomic models ................................................................................................................................ 3
2.1.- Atomic model of Thomson (1897) ............................................................................................ 3
2.2.- Rutherford atomic model (1911) .............................................................................................. 3
2.3.- Bohr atomic model (1913) ....................................................................................................... 4
2.4.- Quantum-mechanical atomic model (s. XX) ............................................................................ 5
3.- Electron configuration .................................................................................................................... 7
4.- Periodic system ............................................................................................................................... 8
4.1.- Periodic system ...................................................................................................................... 10
5.- Chemical Bond ............................................................................................................................. 11
5.1.- Ionic bond .............................................................................................................................. 11
5.2.- Covalent bond ........................................................................................................................ 13
5.3.- Metallic bond ......................................................................................................................... 15
5.4.- Intermolecular forces ............................................................................................................. 16
Activities ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Practice exam UNIT 1........................................................................................................................ 19

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Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

1.- Subatomic particles

Atoms are part of elements. In other words, each element is made up of atoms. Atoms are made up
protons, electrons and neutrons, also called subatomic particles.

1.1.- The Discovery of the Electron

The Electron was discovered in 1897, by the British physicist J. J. Thomson, using a cathode rays
while doing discharge tube experiments.
The particle first named "corpuscles" by Thomson, it was later renamed "Electron" by a proposal of
Irish physicist George F. Fitzgerald that has gained universal acceptance.

1.2.- The discovery of protons

Protons are subatomic particles that, with neutrons and electrons, are the principal constituents of
atoms.
Protons are positively charged atoms that reside in the nucleus of an atom. These protons add the
overall positive charge of a molecule. The mass of the proton is about 1,840 times the mass of the
electron.
Through scientific discovery, protons have been accepted as the atom that contributes to the positive
charge of an atom. The discovery of protons can be attributed to Rutherford.
In 1886 Goldstein discovered existence of positively charged rays in the discharge tube by using
perforated cathode. These rays were named as cannal rays.
In 1899, Rutherford discovered alpha and beta ‘rays’ from uranium. He later demonstrated that
alpha rays are the nuclei of helium atoms. He discovered in 1914 that the nucleus of an atom
constituted and extremely dense but small fraction of the volume of an atom and that this nucleus
was positive in charge.

1.3.- The Discovery of Neutrons

It is remarkable that the neutron was not discovered until 1932 when James Chadwick used
scattering data to calculate the mass of this neutral particle. Since the time of Rutherford it had been
known that the atomic mass number A of nuclei is a bit more than twice the atomic number Z for
most atoms and that essentially all the mass of the atom is concentrated in the relatively tiny
nucleus.
So in summarize we have

Particle Mass Charge

proton 1,67 10-27 Kg +1,6 10-19C

electron 9,1 10-31 kg -1,6 10-19 C

neutron 1,67 10-27 Kg 0

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Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

2.- Atomic models

2.1.- Atomic model of Thomson (1897)
The atom consists of a solid sphere of positively charged matter. Electrons,
Electrons with a negative
charge, are embedded throughout the sphere, like raisins in a cake. The total number of electrons is
such that the net charge of the atom is zero (neutral atom).

Thomson atomic model. It is the earliest theoretical description of the inner structure of atoms,
proposed about 1900 by Lord Kelvin and strongly supported by Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Thomson who had
discovered (1897) the electron,, a negatively charged part of every atom.. Popularly known as the
plum-pudding
pudding model, it had to be abandoned (1911) on both theoretical and experimenta
experimental grounds
in favor of the Rutherford atomic model
model.

2.2.- Rutherford atomic model (1911)

Rutherford tested Thomson's atomic model by devising his "gold foil" experiment.
experi He decided to
shot high velocity alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold atoms. Rutherford reasoned
that if Thomson's model was correct then the mass of the atom was spread out throughout the atoatom.
Then, the alpha particles should pass straight through the foil.

As expected, most alpha particles passed through the gold foill as if the foil was not there but to his
amazement a small number of alpha particles deflected at angles from the initial path and a very
small number of alpha particles
icles rebounded almost directly backwards.

These deflections were not consistent with Thomson's model. Rutherford was forced to discard the
Plum Pudding model and reasoned that the only way the alpha particles could be deflected
backwards was if most of the mass in an atom was concentrated in a nucleus. He thus developed the
planetary model of the atom which put all the protons in the nucleus and the electrons orbited
around the nucleus like planets around the sun.

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Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

Nuclear model with 2 distinct

tinct areas: a positively charged nucleus containing most of the mass of
the atom (protons
protons and neutrons were suggested in itit) and a cortex with electrons rotating in circular
orbits. Between the nucleus and the cortex there was a lot of space.

2.3.- Bohr atomic model (1913)

Similar but with definite circular orbits. The electrons can only travel in certain orbits (called
“stationary orbits” by Bohr: at a certain discrete set of distances from the nucleus with specific
energies.

In 1913 Bohr proposed

posed his quantized shell model of the atom to explain how electrons can have
stable orbits around the nucleus. The motion of the electrons in the Rutherford model was unstable
because, according to classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory, any charg
charged particle moving
on a curved path emits electromagnetic radiation; thus, the electrons would lose energy and spiral
into the nucleus.
To remedy the stability problem, Bohr modified the Rutherford model by requiring that the
electrons move in orbits of fixed
ixed size and energy. The energy of an electron depends on the size of
the orbit and is lower for smaller orbits.
Radiation can occur only when the electron jumps from one orbit to another. The atom will be
completely stable in the state with the smallest orbit, since there is no orbit of lower energy into
which the electron can jump.

Orbital atomic model XX century

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Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

2.4.- Quantum-mechanical
mechanical atomic model (s. XX)

Nuclear model with 2 distinct areas: a positively charged nucleus containing most of the mass of
the atom. In it, there were protons and neutrons and a shell with electrons distributed in orbitals.

Atomic orbitals
Orbits and orbitals sound similar, but they have quite different meanings. It is essential that you
understand the difference between
ween them.

The impossibility of drawing orbits for electrons

To plot a path for something you need to know exactly where the object is and be able to work out
exactly where it's going to be an instant later. You can't do this for electrons.

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (not required at this level) says - loosely - that you can't
know with certainty both where an electron is and where it's going next. That makes it impossible to
plot an orbit for an electron around a nucleus.

Hydrogen's electron - thee 1s orbital

Note: In this diagram (and the orbital diagrams that follow), the nucleus is shown very much
larger than it really is. This is just for clarity.

Suppose you had a single hydrogen atom and at a particular instant plotted the
position of the onee electron. Soon afterwards, you do the same thing, and find
that it is in a new position. You have no idea how it got from the first place to the
second.

You keep on doing this over and over again, and gradually build up a sort of 3D
map of the places thatt the electron is likely to be found.

In the hydrogen case, the electron can be found anywhere within a spherical space surrounding the
nucleus. The diagram shows a cross-section through this spherical space. 95% of the time, the
electron will be found within
hin a fairly easily defined region of space quite close to the nucleus. Such
a region of space is called an orbital. You can think of an orbital as being the region of space in
which the electron lives.

In a particular orbital the electron will have a part

particular definable energy.

Each orbital has a name. The orbital occupied by the hydrogen electron is called a 1s orbital. The
"1" represents the fact that the orbital is in the energy level closest to the nucleus
nucleus.

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Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

Type of orbital Number of orbitals Electron capacity Picture

s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14

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Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

3.- Electron configuration

It is the distribution of electrons of an atom in atomic orbitals.

The Aufbau principle governs how electrons are filled in an atom's atomic orbitals. According to
this theory, electrons are filled into atomic orbitals in sequence of increasing orbital energy level
level.
According to the Aufbau principle, the lowest energy atomic orbitals are occupied first, followed by
the higher energy levels.

How remember this order? The Moeller diagram shows the filling order of atomic orbitals in
increasing order of energy:

Activity 1.- Write down the name and the electron configuration of the following elements:
a) N (Z=7) c) Cl (Z=17) e) P (Z=15) g) Ca (Z=20) i) Ne (Z=10) k) Fe
F (Z=26)
b) Sr (Z=38) d) Mg (Z=12) f) Be (Z=4) h) Br (Z=35) j) Si (Z=14) l) I (Z=53)

Valence electrons
They are the electrons of the outer shell. The number of electrons in an atom's outermost valence
shell governs its bonding behavior.

Activity 2.- Write

te down the valence electrons of the elements in the previous activity.

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Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

4.- Periodic system

The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements,, organized on the basis of
their atomic numbers, electron configurations (electron shell model), and recurring chemical
properties.. Elements are presented in order of increasing atomic number (the number of protons in
the nucleus). The standard form of the table consists of a grid of elements laid out in 18 columns
and 7 rows, with a double row of elem
elements
ents below that. The table can also be deconstructed into four
rectangular blocks: the s-block to the left, the p-block to the right, the d-block
block in the middle, and the
f-block below that.
The rows of the table are called periods; the columns are called groups,, with some of these having
names such as halogens or noble gases
gases.
Although precursors exist, Dmitri Mendeleev is generally credited with the publication, in 1869, of
the first widely recognized periodic table. He developed his table to illustrate periodic trends in the
properties of the then-known
known elements. Mendeleev also predicted some properties of then-unknown
elements that would be expected to fill gaps in this table. Most of his predictions were proved
correct when the elements in question were subsequently discovered. Mendeleev's periodic table
has since been expanded and refined with the discovery or synthesis of further new elements and
the development of new theoretical models to explain chemical behavior. The chemical elements
were organized
ized on the basis of their atomic mass.

Periods
A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups generally have more significant
periodic trends, there are regions where horizontal trends are more significant than vertical group
trends, such as the f-block,
block, where the lanthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal
series of elements.

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Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

Elements in the same period show trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and
electronegativity. The atomic radius decreases from left to right throughout a period because
protons are simultaneously added to the nucleus, making it more positively charged. Thus, nuclear
attraction is increased, that is, the nucleus attracts more electrons, causing the atom’s shell to come
closer and radius to shrink.

Groups
A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups usually have more significant
periodic trends than periods. Elements within the same group generally have the same electron
configurations in their valence shell. Consequently, elements in the same group tend to have a
shared chemistry.
Under an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from
the leftmost column (the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases).
Some of these groups have been given trivial (unsystematic) names, as seen in the table below,
although some are rarely used.
Elements in the same group tend to show patterns in atomic radius, ionization energy, and
electronegativity. From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of the elements increase due
to the increasing number of electron shells.

Column Name
1 Alkali metals
2 Alkaline earth metals
16 Chalcogens
17 Halogens
18 Noble gases

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Physics and chemistry 4º ESO Unit 1: Elements and compounds

4.1.- Periodic system

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Physics and chemistry Unit 1: Elements and compounds

5.- Chemical Bond

Atoms are rarely isolated. Except for the noble gases, the rest of the atoms tend to combine to form
different chemical substances.
If atoms have the same atomic number, then elements are formed.
If atoms have different atomic number, then compounds are formed.

Why?
Because of their stability. Noble gases have great stability and (except helium) have 8 valence
electrons.
The rest of the atoms are unstable as they do not have their valence shell full of electrons. To be
stable, all atoms want to have 8 electrons in their outer shell. This is called the octet rule.
The way atoms complete their valence shell is by gaining, losing or sharing electrons with other
atoms, thus forming different chemical bonds.

Types of chemical bond

Based on how they get 8 electrons in the outermost shell, there are 3 types of chemical bonds:
– ionic bond
– covalent bond
– metallic bond

5.1.- Ionic bond

An ionic bond is formed between a metal and a non-metal. In this type of bond atoms become
more stable by gaining or losing an entire electron (or several electrons). When they do so, atoms
form ions, or charged particles. Electron gain or loss can give an atom a filled outermost electron
shell and make it energetically more stable. When one atom loses an electron and another atom
gains that electron, the process is called electron transfer.
The bond results from electrostatic attraction between ions of different charges. When many ions
attract each other, they form large, ordered, crystal lattices in which each ion is surrounded by ions
of the opposite charge.

What is the chemical bond between 11Na and 17Cl like?

Element Electron configuration Valence electrons Ion Formula
11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1 Na+ NaCl

17Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 7 Cl-

What is the chemical bond between 11Na and 8O like?

Element Electron configuration Valence electrons Ion Formula
11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1 Na+ Na2O

8O 1s2 2s2 2p4 6 O2-

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Physics and chemistry Unit 1: Elements and compounds

What is the chemical bond between 12Mg and 8O like?

Element Electron configuration Valence electrons Ion Formula

What is the chemical bond between 17Cl and 20Ca like

Element Electron configuration Valence electrons Ion Formula

¿What is the chemical bond between 13Al and 17Cl ?

Element Electron configuration Valence electrons Ion Formula

What is the chemical bond between 12Mg and 7N like?

Element Electron configuration Valence electrons Ion Formula

What is the chemical bond between 9F and 3Li like?

Element Electron configuration Valence electrons Ion Formula

Properties of substances with ionic bonds

– Ionic substances require high temperatures to melt
– Solid at room temperature
– Form crystals
– Hard but brittle
– Do not conduct electricity in solid but do if dissolved in water
– Dissolve well in water
Example: table salt

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Physics and chemistry Unit 1: Elements and compounds

5.2.- Covalent bond

Another way atoms can become more stable is by sharing electrons (rather than fully gaining or
losing them), thus forming covalent bonds. Atoms can share one or more pair of electrons. A
covalent bond is formed between two non-metals. This type of bond is represented by Lewis
diagrams.
There are two basic types of covalent bonds: polar and nonpolar. In a polar covalent bond, the
electrons are unequally shared by the atoms and spend more time close to one atom than the other.
Because of the unequal distribution of electrons between the atoms of different elements, slightly
positive (δ+) and slightly negative (δ–) charges develop in different parts of the molecule.
In a water molecule (above), the bond connecting the oxygen to each hydrogen is a polar bond.
Oxygen is a much more electronegative (tendency of an atom to attract electrons toward itself) atom
than hydrogen, meaning that it attracts shared electrons more strongly, so the oxygen of water bears
a partial negative charge (has high electron density), while the hydrogens bear partial positive
charges (have low electron density).
Nonpolar covalent bonds form between two atoms of the same element, or between atoms of
different elements that share electrons more or less equally. For example, molecular oxygen (O2) is
nonpolar because the electrons are equally shared between the two oxygen atoms.

What is the chemical bond between 9F and 9F like?

Element Electron Valence Need Formula Lewis diagram
Configuration electrons
9F 1s2 2s2 2p5 7 1 F2
2 2 5
9F 1s 2s 2p 7 1

What is the chemical bond between 8O and 8O like?

Element Electron Valence Need Formula Lewis diagram
Configuration electrons

What is the chemical bond between 7N and 7N like?

Element Electron Valence Need Formula Lewis diagram
Configuration electrons

What is the chemical bond between 1H and 1H like?

Element Electron Valence Need Formula Lewis diagram
Configuration electrons

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Physics and chemistry Unit 1: Elements and compounds

What is the chemical bond between 1H and 8O like?

Element Electron Valence Need Formula Lewis diagram
Configuration electrons

What is the chemical bond between 1H and 7N like?

Element Electron Valence Need Formula Lewis diagram
Configuration electrons

What is the chemical bond between 1H and 6C like?

Element Electron Valence Need Formula Lewis diagram
Configuration electrons

What is the chemical bond between 17Cl and 15P like?

Element Electron Valence Need Formula Lewis diagram
Configuration electrons

What is the chemical bond between 17Cl and 8O like?

Element Electron Valence Need Formula Lewis diagram
Configuration electrons

Properties of substances with covalent bonds

They can be:
Molecular substances Atomic crystals
Solid, liquid or gases at room temperature Solid at room temperature
Low melting point High melting point
Do not conduct electricity Conduct electricity: diamond no; graphite yes
Some dissolve well in water Do not dissolve well in water
Examples: water, glucose Examples: diamond, graphite

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Physics and chemistry Unit 1: Elements and compounds

5.3.- Metallic bond

Chemical bond between two atoms of the same metallic element. In this type of bond, each atom of
a metal donates one or more electrons to a "sea" of electrons. This electron cloud is shared by all the
nuclei of the atoms that give up electrons to the whole.
Metals consist of a lattice of positive ions through which a cloud of electrons moves. The positive
ions will tend to repel one another, but are held together by the negatively charged electron cloud.

What is the chemical bond between atoms of 11Na like?

Element Electron Valence Ion Formula Drawing
configuration electrons
11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1 Na+ Na

What is the chemical bond between atoms of 12Mg like?

Element Electron Valence Ion Formula Drawing
configuration electrons

What is the chemical bond between atoms of 13Al like?

Element Electron Valence Ion Formula Drawing
configuration electrons

What is the chemical bond between atoms of 3Li like?

Element Electron Valence Ion Formula Drawing
configuration electrons

Properties of metallic bonds

 High melting points
 They form crystals
 Brightness (they reflect almost all the light that reaches their surface)
 Excellent electrical and thermal conductivity
 Ductility
 Tensile strength

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Physics and chemistry Unit 1:
1 Elements and compounds

5.4.- Intermolecular forces

Forces of attraction between neighboring molecules (covalent molecular substances).
substances There are no
intermolecular forces in ionic and metallic substances.
Intermolecular forces are much weaker than the intramolecular forces of attraction (ionic, covalent
and metallic bond) but are important because they determine the physical properties of molecules
like their boiling point, melting point or density. For example, the covalent bond present within HCl
molecules is much stronger than the forces present between the neighboring HCl molecules, which
exist when the molecules are sufficiently close to each other.

Attractive intermolecular forces are considered by the following types:

a) Hydrogen bond. This intermolecular for force occurs between
tween molecules containing hydrogen
and a small and very electron
electronegative atom such as oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine. The
hydrogen bond is the interaction of a hydrogen atom of one molecule with an
electronegative atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine from another molecule.

In a polar covalent bond

bond,, the electrons are unequally shared by the atoms and spend more
time close to one atom than the other. Because of the unequal distribution
dist of electrons
between the atoms of different elements, slightly positive (δ+) and slightly negative (δ (δ–)
charges develop in different parts of the molecule. In a water molecule (above), the bond
connecting the oxygen to each hydrogen is a polar bond. Oxygen is a much more
electronegative atom than hydrogen, so the oxygen of water bears a partial negative charge
while the hydrogens bear partial posit
positive
ive charges (have low electron density). The partially
positive
sitive end of hydrogen is attracted to the partially negative end of the oxygen, nitrogen, or
fluorine of another molecule.

b) Van der Waals forces (very weak)

weak). Example: Dipole-dipole
dipole interactions.
interactions These forces occur
when the partially positively charged part of a molecule interacts with the partially
negatively charged part of the neighboring molecule.

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Physics and chemistry Unit 1:
1 Elements and compounds

Activities
Activity 3. Which of the following substances have hydrogen bonds?
a) PH3 b) HNO3 c) H2O d) HCl e) HF f) CH3COOH
Activity 4. Which of the following substances have a stronger Van der Waals force?
a) I2 or Cl2 c) SO2 or SO3
b) CH4 or CCl4 d) H2 or Cl2

Activity 5. a) Write the electronn configurat

configuration of: Rb (Z=37), F (Z=9) and Ca (Z=20)
b) Explain the bonding of the following combinations:
a) Rb and F b) F and F c) F and Ca
Activity 6. Which of the following characteristics are related of ionic substances:
a) Form molecules
b) They conduct electricity when are dissolved
c) Do not dissolve in water
d) High melting point

Activity 7. Explain the properties of metals

metals.

Activity 8. Classify the following substances looking at the table

Substance A B C
Fusion temperature -60º C 1350º 800º C
Solubility in water No No Yes
Conductivity No Yes Yes, but just when it is
dissolved.

Activity 9. Explain each atomic model, writing the differences between them.

Activity 10. Identify the type of substance (ionic

onic compound, molecular substance, atomic
atomi crystal
and metallic compound)

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Physics and chemistry Unit 1: Elements and compounds

State at room Melting point (ºC) Dissolved in water conductivity Type of substance
temperature
Gas -85.6 yes

63.7 no yes

1453 yes

1610 no no

800 yes Yes but dissolved

in water
Gas -102 no no

734 yes Not in solid state

2700 no yes

114 no no

996 yes

Gas -220 no

Activity 11. Complete the following table:

Element Z A Number of Number of Number of Atomic
protons electrons neutrons symbol
sulphur 32 16 18
𝐹𝑒
potassium 19 18 20
𝑁𝑒
nickel 28 58
gold 197 76 118
𝑀𝑔
𝑁
argon 18 18 22
phosphorus 31 18 16

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Physics and chemistry Unit 1: Elements and compounds

Practice exam UNIT 1

1.- Give :
a) the name of the following elements Ca (Z=20)
b) their electron configurations Te(Z=52)
c) their valence electrons Rb (Z=37)
d) their most likely ion Cr (Z=24)
e) the period and the group Br (Z=35
f) Draw the shape of the periodic system and put
the elements in the correct place

2.- Describe the bond between:

a) Potassium (Z=19) and oxygen (Z=8)
b) Oxygen (Z=8) and hydrogen (Z=1)
c) Nitrogen (Z=7) and magnesium (Z=12)
d) Nitrogen (Z=7) and nitrogen (Z=7)

3.- a) List the properties of metallic bonds. Explain a sodium crystal (Z=11).
b) List the properties of ionic bonds.

4.- Describe Thomson's, Rutherford's and Bohr's atomic models.

5.- a) When are there hydrogen bonds? Give an example of a substance with this type of bond.
b) Which atom is bigger Rb or Ca? Why?
c) Which substance has stronger forces of Van der Waals, H2S or H2Se

6.- Complete the following table:

Element A Z Number of Number of Number of Atomic
protons electrons neutrons symbol
copper 64 29 28
𝑆𝑛
potassium 19 18 20
𝐴𝑟
𝐵𝑟
selenium 79 36 45

7.- Complete the following table:

State at room Melting point (ºC) Dissolved in water conductivity Type of substance
temperature
Gas -85.6 yes
-39 no yes
640 yes Just when it is
dissolved in water

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