RGUKT-BASAR

RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF KNOWLEDGE TECHNOLOGIES, BASAR

Department of English
Mandatory Course in Engineering
Branches: E2: ME, EEE, CSE, MME, and ECE (E3: Chem)
______________________________________________________________________________
ESSENCE OF INDIAN KNOWLEDGE TRADITION

UNIT –I
BASIC STRUCTURE OF INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM:
VEDA
(AYURVEDA, DHANURVEDA, GANDHARVA VEDA, STHAPATYA AATI(SHILPA
VEDA), ARTHA VEDA, VEEDANGA (SHIKSHA, KALPA, CHHANDA, NIRUKTHA,
VYAKARANA, JYOTHISHYA) DARMA SHASTRA, MIMASHA, PURANA,
TARKASHASTRA
UNIT – II
MODERN SCIENCE AND INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
YOGA HOLISTIC HEALTH CARE
UNIT – III
INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITION:
A) ORTHODOX (HINDU) SCHOOL: SAMKYA, YOGA, NYAYA, VAISHESHIKA, PURVA
MIMAMSA, VEDHANTA,
B) HETORODOX (NON-HINDU) SCHOOLS: CARVAKA, JAIN, BUDDHA
UNIT-IV
INDIAN LINGUISTIC TRADITION:
PHONOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS
UNIT –V
INDIAN ARTISTIC TRADITION:
CHITRA KALA, MANTRA KALA, VAASTU KALA, SANGEETHA KALA, NRUTHYU
EVAM SAHITYAM
 UNIT – I
BASIC STRUCTURE OF INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

The Vedas are considered the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization. It is the most
sacred scriptures of India. They were meant to be mantras (incantations) in praise of various
Aryan gods, it being the age when the Aryans were finding their feet in India. What they also
reflect is a startlingly vivid picture of life. Vedas are the treasure troves containing spiritual
knowledge encompassing all aspects of our life. Vedic literature with its philosophical maxims
has stood the test of time and is the highest religious authority for all sections of Hindus in
particular and for mankind in general.

The word Veda means wisdom, knowledge or vision, and it is revered as the language of the
gods in human speech. The essence of the Vedas is to regulate the social, legal, domestic and
religious customs of the Hindus which is meticulously pursued to the present day. All the rituals
of Hindus conducted upon birth, marriage, death etc. are based upon Vedic doctrines and they
are being followed from time immemorial.
PERIOD OF THE VEDAS:
The Vedas are probably the earliest documents of the human mind. As the ancient Hindus
seldom kept any historical record of their religious, literary and political realization it is indeed
difficult to precisely say when the earliest portions of the Vedas came into existence and what is
their period. Historians provide us many guesses but none of them is free from ambiguity.
However it is believed that it is in 1200 B.C., when the first Aryan immigrants in India started
composing the various hymns that are part of the books.

The Rig Veda is said to be date back to 1500 B.C. - 1000 B.C. Some scholars date the Rig Veda
as early as 12000 B.C. - 4000 B.C. The traditional date goes back to 3000BC, something which
the German scholar Max Mueller accepted. Inspite of the controversy over the period of Rig
Veda going on for long time, modern historians have now reached a consensus that its oldest
parts were written around a 1200 B.C. The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda were
compiled after the age of the Rig Veda and are ascribed to the Vedic period.

THE FOUR VEDAS

The Rig Veda : (The Book of Mantra) The Rig Veda is a collection of brilliant songs or hymns
and is a main source of information in detail on the social, religious, political and economic
background of the Rig-Vedic civilization. It is the oldest book in any Indo-European language
and contains the earliest form of all Sanskrit mantras. Even though some of the hymns of Rig
Veda characterize monotheism (belief in the existence of one god), naturalistic polytheism
(belief in more than one god,) and monism (belief of different paths to the one god), in general,
can be found in the hymns of Rig Veda. The Rig-Vedic 'samhita' (collection of mantras) consists
of 1,017 'suktas' (hymns) divided into eight 'ashtakas' (songs) each having eight 'adhyayas'
(sections), which are sub-divided into various groups with a total of about 10,600 stanzas. The
hymns are collection of the work of many authors called 'rishis' (according to post Vedic
tradition "seers"). Atri, Kanwa,Vashistha, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni, Gotama and Bharadwaja are
considered as the seven primary seers.

The hymns are devoted to thirty-three different gods, most of them nature gods like Indra (rain
god), Agni (fire god), Rudra (storm god) etc. A sizeable chunk of the verses are also dedicated to
Soma (air god).

The Sama Veda : (The Book of Chant)

The Sama Veda is purely a collection of 'samans' (chants) derived from the eighth and ninth
books of the 'original Veda', the Rig-Veda. The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes
have no distinctive lessons of their own. Hence, its text is a reduced version of the Rig Veda.
Vedic Scholar David Frawley says that if the Rig Veda is the word, Sama Veda is the song or the
meaning, if Rig Veda is the knowledge, Sama Veda is its realization, if Rig Veda is the wife, the
Sama Veda is her husband.

Sama Veda was meant for the priests who performed the rituals of the soma ceremonies [rituals
of the threefold realm of life & death (samsara)]. As time went on rituals and ceremonies of
worship became increasingly complex and so a need arose to compile all the rituals and their
chants in a book, as a sort of reference point for the priests. The emphasis was on the specific
style of its poetry and its literary content had no relevance. There are also very strict instructions
in SamaVeda as to how particular hymns must be sung. Great emphasis was put upon sounds of
the words of the mantras so that they could have accomplished effects on the environment and
the person who pronounced them.

The Yajur Veda : (The Book of Ritual)

The Yajur-Veda or the wisdom of sacrifices is also a liturgical collection and was made to meet
the demands of a ceremonial religion. It lays down various "yajurs" (sacred incantations) which
were chanted by a particular sect of priests called adhvaryu. They performed the sacrificial rites.
The Yajur Veda practically served as a guidebook for the priests who execute sacrificial acts and
at the same time uttering the prayers and the sacrificial yajurs. Few hymns are also attributed to
various Gods. However, the core of the Veda is dedicated to the theory of the rituals thereby
making it very much ritual based. Many chants for the purpose of praying and paying respect to
the various instruments that are involved in the sacrifices could also be seen the Veda. Not less
than six complete recessions of Yajur Veda, viz. Madyandina, Kanva, Taittiriya, Kathaka,
Maitrayani and Kapishthala are available now.

The Atharva Veda : (The Book of Spell)

The Atharva-Veda (the wisdom of the Atharvans) is called so because the families of the
atharvan sect of the Brahmins have traditionally been credited with the composition of the hymns
of the Veda. This is the last of the four Vedas and is completely different from the other Vedas.
It is considered next only to Rig-Veda with regard to history and sociology because its
compilation of hymns lacks the remarkable spiritual experience that the Rig-Veda offers. Its
hymns are of a more diverse nature than the Rig Veda and are also simpler in language and
therefore it infuses a different experience. In fact, many scholars do not consider it part of the
Vedas at all. The Atharva Veda consists of spells and charms prevalent at its time, and portrays a
clearer picture of the Vedic society. It has incantations for everything, from success in love to the
realization of otherworldly objectives.
AUTHORS OF VEDAS
There is a strong belief among the Hindus that the revered compositions of the Vedas passed on
through generations by the word of mouth from time immemorial and hence the general
assumption is that the Vedic hymns were either taught by God to the sages or that they were
revealed themselves to "mantradrasta" (seers). It is Vyasa Krishna Dwaipayana who was the key
player in compiling the Vedas around the time of Lord Krishna (c. 1500 BC)
DIFFERENT DIVISIONS OF VEDAS
Each Veda consists of four parts:

The Samhitas (hymns): A collection of mantras or hymns.

The Brahmanas (rituals): The Brahmanas are ritualistic texts and include guidelines and
religious duties. Each Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it.

The Aranyakas (theologies): The Aryanyakas, meaning forest texts intend to serve as a guide of
meditation for ascetics who live in forests and lead a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from
various sorts of worldly pleasures often with the aim of pursuing religious and spiritual goals.

The Upanishads (philosophies): The Upanishads form the concluding portions of the Veda and
therefore called the "Vedanta" or the end of the Veda and contains the essence of Vedic
teachings. The Upanishads along with the Aranyakas are the concluding portions of the
Brahmanas, which discuss philosophical problems.
CONCLUSION
The Upanishads are a set of guidelines that pave way to attain brahma-knowledge through
Vedanta. The different derivations together make out that they give us both spiritual vision and
philosophical reasoning.The sages who discovered them wanted to go beyond nature in search of
transcendental nature of man. They dared to take up this challenge and the Upanishads are the
unique record of the methods they adopted, the struggles they undertook and the victory they
achieved in this astonishing adventure of human spirit. In seeking the immortal, the sages
conferred the immortality upon the literature they have passed on to us.

One of the oldest and longest of the Upanishads, the Brihadaranyaka says: "From the unreal lead
me to the real! From darkness lead me to light! From death lead me to immortality!"The crux of
the Upanishads is that this can be achieved by meditating with the awareness that one's soul
('atman') is one with all things, and that 'one' is 'Brahman', which becomes the 'all'..
The Upvedas:

The Up-Vedas are the texts on the auxillary themes of the Vedas. The Upveda of
RigVeda, YajurVeda, SamaVeda and Atharv Veda are Economics, Military Science, Music and
Dance and Medical Sceinces respectively. There are 5 Upveda that can be traced in some
meaningful form, they are as follows:-

1. Ayurveda (Sciences relating to LIFE and MEDICINE):-

Ayurveda is related to the secret of life and the science of long life. The originator of Ayurveda
is supposed to be Lord Dhanwantari. Apart from him, other prominent names are Aitareya,
Kashyapa, Harit, Agnivesha, and Bhedamuni. At present, three important books of Ayurveda
are: Charak Samhita, Sushruta Samhita and Vaagbhatta Samhita. These three books are
collectively called Brihat-trayi. Patanjali has also authored text on Ayurveda.

Ayurveda is a science that deals with ‘knowledge of life’ and longevity. The main texts of this
life science are Sushruta Samhita and Charaka Samhita. Ayurveda deals with medicine and
health. A long and healthy physical and mental life is necessary for a prolonged spiritual practice
and experience. The source of this science, according to sage Sushruta (600 BeE), lies in the
Atharva Veda which is aptly called Bhaishajya Veda (the Veda of medicine and treatment of
diseases). Ayurveda includes methods of diagnoses and treatment for physiological and
psychological illness. It deals with embryology, hygiene, anatomy, surgery, ere. Dominik
Wujastyk, a Senior Research Fellow at the world- famous Wellcome Centre for the History of
Medicine at the University College of London and the author of The Roots of Ayurveda, writes
in his article ‘The Science of Medicine’, “Indian medicine, as a systematic and scholarly
tradition, begins historically with the appearance of the great medical encyclopedias of Charaka,
Sushruta and Bhela about two thousand years ago. Just as Panini’s famous linguistic study of
Sanskrit leaps into the historical record fully formed, like the Buddha from Queen

Maya’s side, so the medical encyclopedias too emerge with a learned medical tradition in an
almost fully articulated form.’ Obviously from this one can infer that medical science must have
developed fully in ancient India before the emergence of the Sushruta Samhita and Charaka
Samhita.

According to Ayurveda, the material bodies of human beings are composed of kala (protective
layer), dhatu (component matter), mala (eliminations), three doshas (humours), agni (digestive
fire) and kriya (movement or activity). Among these six the most important is the principle of
three constitutional elements called humours in the human body, namely, vata (air), pitta (bile)
and kapha (phlegm). Vata (air in body) includes all phenomena of motion and its essential
components are ether and air. Kapha deals with cooling and preservation, and production of
various secretions like mucus and cough. Its essential components are earth and ether. Pitta (bile)
is made of fire and ether. It deals with metabolism, energy production, process of digestion, etc.
A person may be constitutionally brisk (with vata dominating) or fiery (with pitta in dominance)
or phlegmatic (with kapha being the prevalent element). But, according to Ayurveda, only when
all three elements are in equilibrium in the human body a person is said to be healthy.

An ayurvedic doctor diagnoses a patient with reference to the relative levels of his or her vata,
pitta and kapha. The ancient Indian rishis, Charaka and Sushruta, practised ayurveda and surgery
respectively. Acharya Charaka (e.100 CE), who wrote the Char aka Sambita, is known as the
‘Father of Indian medicine’. Through his intuitive powers he had realized the medicinal qualities
of 100,000 plants and herbs. Since the medications are herbal with least side-effects, they are
becoming increasingly popular throughout the world. According to Charaka a long and healthy
life is not possible if a person does not live morally. Morality gives rise to prajna or wisdom,
which gives peace of mind and leads to longevity and happiness. When this prajna is abused, it
causes all types of sickness. Acharya Sushruta (600 BCE) is popularly known as the ‘Father of
Surgery in India’. In the Sushruta Samhita, a unique encyclopaedia of surgery, he details 300
types of operations he performed, along with 125 types of surgical instruments that he used. He
is lauded as an early pioneer of plastic surgery and anaesthesia. Ayurvedic science is divided into
eight major topics:
1. Shalya-rantra: surgery and midwifery

2. Shalakya-tantra: study of diseases of head, eyes, nose, throat, etc.

3. Kayachikitsa: therapeutics

4. Bhutavidya: mental diseases (psychiatry)

5. Kaurnarabhrurya-rantra : paediatrics and obstetrics

6. Agada-tantra: toxicology

7. Rasayana-tantra : remedies for venoms

Ayurveda also deals with the treatment of plants and animals. Texts of Ayurveda prescribe a
strict code of conduct for the physician.

Dhanurveda:

This Upveda explains Spiritual sciences like PURUSHARTHA, DUTIES, DEEDS, etc and also
Material sciences like CIVIL and MILITARY defense, war and politics. The Ramayana and
Mahabharata a good deal of light is thrown upon this science and art, particularly in the
descriptions of battles. The most ancient books of Dhanurveda are not available, but some of the
known books are Dhanurvidhi, Drauna Vidya, Kodanda Mandana and Dhanurveda Samhita.

Dhanurveda is the science of archery, martial arts and weaponry. It is a military science, which is
mentioned in the Rig Veda and Aitareya Brahmana. It is also known as shastravidya and it
originates from the Yajur Veda. It deals with shastra and astra Shastra” means weapons which
are used with one’s hands in war, such as swords and maces, and astra means weapons that are
shot like arrows. Dhanurveda also deals with the manufacturing of and training with weapons.
Although there is no ancient scientific work by the name of Dhanurveda, a text called
Dhanurveda Sarnhira, belonging to a later period, is still extent.

Gandharva Veda:
Gandharvaveda is the science of music, derived from the Sama-Veda, and we have already dealt
with this subject briefly, while dealing with the Vedaanga of Chhandas. Apart from Devotional
Music it also deals with some subjects of Spiritual Sciences.

According to tradition gandharvas are expert musicians of swarga (the abode of the devas). It is
believed that there used to be a work called Gandharvaveda with 30,000 verses on music, which
is not available now. Gandharvaveda dealt with the science of music and the sacred performing
arts. It derived its origin in the Sarna Veda. It included vocal and instrumental music, dance and
drama. There are seven svaras (notes) from which ragas are produced, corresponding to the
appropriate time of day and season. The ragas create astonishingly powerful physical,
psychological and spiritual effects. While Western music has only two modes – major and minor
scales – Indian music uses dozens of different modes. Bhararamuni’s Ndtyasbastra, available
today, is an extraordinary text on music, dance and drama.

Shilpa Veda (Sthapatyaveda or Vastushastra):

It deals with architecture and various arts. According to Shukra-niti there are a number of arts
but 64 are considered to be more prominent.

Some scholars consider Sthapatyaveda or Vastushastra as one of the Upavedas. It deals with the
Hindu science of sacred architecture and the sthapati or architect. Traditionally, there are 18
teachers of architecture to whom Srhaptyaveda is ascribed. The two most well known among
them are Vishvakarrna (the architect of the devas) and Maya (the architect of the asuras).

This important science has its origin in the Yajur Veda, wherein the sacrificial altar or yajna vedi
was constructed with utmost precision and care in different geometrical patterns. Similarly,
Hindu mandirs were built in different styles like Nagata, Dravida and Vesara with painstaking
perfection by the master builders-cum-architects. It is remarkable that thousands of mandirs of
ancient India, in locations as varied as mountains, caves and seashores, still stand today as
majestic reminders of this ancient science. The continuing discovery of various sites of the Indus
Valley civilization in the 20th and 21st century conclusively proves that India of remote antiquity
had great architects and town planners.

Some of the ancient books on architecture include Abbilesbitsrtbacbintsmani, Brihatsamhita,

Manasara, Sama- ranganasutradhara, and Mayamatashilpashastra. The A rthashastra of Kaurilya
and some Puranas, like the Agni Purana, Matsya Purana and Padma Purana, also contain much
information about architecture.

Artha Veda:

Artha-Veda is the Upaveda of the Atharva-Veda, which deals with social, economic, and
political systems. In the early medieveal times Artha Shashtra was also authored by Chanakya.

In ancient India, Arthaveda meant the book contairung knowledge of material wealth and the
means of acquiring it. The best available work of Arthaveda is the Arthashastra of Kautilya (c.
372 BCE). Kautilya was also known as Chanakya and Vishnugupta. He was the main adviser to
King Chandragupta Maurya (340 BCE). Kautilya’s Arthashastra has its roots in the Atharva
Veda. Shaunaka rishi, in his work Charanavyuha, lists Arthashastra as an Upaveda. This work
has 6,000 shlokas that deal with 180 different topics like politics, law and economics. It is one of
the most ancient and brilliant works in the world. In addition to economics it also covers such
subjects as relations with enemy states, preparation of army for all types of combat, espionage
system, and revenue collection, formation of the judiciary and discharging of justice.

Vedang:

Vedang are the auxillary to the four Vedas essential for the correct interpretation of the Vedas.

Mundaka Upanisad mentions that there are six Vedanga which are as follows: (i) Siksha
(Education), (ii) Kalpa (Creation), (iii) Vyakarana (Grammer), (iv) Nirukta (Etymology), (v)
Chhanda (Metres), and (vi) Jyotisha (Mathematics & Astronomy).

1. Shikshaa: Science of Articulation and Pronunciation:-

Siksha is related to sound, letters, pronunciation, the method of teaching and learning of these
basic elements. Every Veda has its own peculiar pronunciation of certain letters, and each one of
them has its specific modes and speed of recitation. A book called Siksha Sangraha contains a
collection of 32 systems of siksha. These systems relate to different sakhas of the four Vedas.
The most important among the books relating to siksha is the famous Paniniya Siksha. Another
important book is Yaajnavalkya Siksha. In Vasishthi Siksha we have a detailed account of the
differences between the mantras of the Rig-Veda and Yajur-Veda. Both Yaajnavalkya siksha and
Vasishthi siksa are related to the Vajasaneyi Samhita. The other important works are: Katyaayani
siksha, Paaraashari siksha, Maadhyandini Siksha, Keshavi Siksha and Manduki Siksha. In
Naaradiya Siksha, which is related to the Sama-Veda, there is supposed to be the knowledge of
the secret of different sounds.

The development of Siksha as a Vedaanga and as a science demonstrates the profoundity and
vast scope of research that was undertaken in respect of pronunciation in ancient India. It is
because of this Vedaanga that the system of Vedic recitation has remained intact right from the
ancient times to the present day. A given sakha is recited in the same way all over the country,
and Vedapaathis of the same sakha, belonging to different parts of India, pronounce mantras with
the same intonation, speed and strength and force and even the same hand movements. If the
Vedaanga system of pronunciation has remained so uniform in the country, and if the tradition
has remained so powerful, it is because of the degree of perfection that was achieved in respect
of Siksha.
2. Kalpa (Creation):

Vedic system involves Karmakaanda (system of prescribed acts and rituals). A detailed
understanding of this Karmakaanda became necessary in due course of time, and this gave rise to
a vast literature of Kalpasutra. Kalpa means that which is understood or justified in respect of
prescribed acts and rituals.

3. Pratishakhya / Vyaakaran / Grammer:-

Vyakarana is considered to be a principal part of the six Vedaangas. Vyakarana is looked

upon as the mouth among the Vedaangas. The most celebrated author of vyakarana is Panini,
who has himself mentioned several great names of the great grammarians. Panini's famous book
is Ashtadhyayi, in which he has discussed both Vedic and non-Vedic words.

One of the greatest commentaries on vyakarana is that of Patanjali. This is supposed to be the
most authentic book on Panini's Vyakarana. The authenticity of Patanjali's commentary is so
great that wherever there is a difference of opinion between Sutra, Vaarttika and Mahabhashya,
the verdict of the Mahabhashya of Patanjali is regarded to be ultimately acceptable.

Closely connected with Siksha, Chhandas and Vyakarana, there is a body of literature known
as Praatisaakhya. For each Veda and for each sakha there are certain specific rules, and these
rules deal with various subjects connected with pronunciation, meters, and other grammatical
matters. The meaning of the Veda is also indicated in the Praatisaakhya, and it is therefore
considered to be an aid to the study of the concerned Veda. The Rik Praatisaakhya deals with the
Saishiriya Upasaakha of the Saakala sakha of the Rig-Veda. Maharshi Shaunaka is the author.
The great commentator Uvat has written a commentary on this Praatisaakhya.

Kaatyaayana who belonged to a period earlier than that of Panini composed Vajasaneyi
Praatisaakhya. Uvat and Anantabhatta have written, respectively, Matriveda and
Padaarthaprakashaka to elucidate the Praatisaakhya of Katyayana. Taittiriya Praatisaakhya is
related to the Taittiriya Samhita of Krishna Yajur-Veda. The commentary has been written by
Mahishi, which is known as Padakramasadana.

Pushpasutra and Riktantra are the two Praatisaakhyas on the Sama-Veda. The author of
Pushpasutra is supposed to be Vararuchi, and the author of Riktantra is supposed to be
Shaakatayaana.

The Chaturaadhyayika is the oldest Praatisaakhya of the Atharva-Veda. Kautsa is supposed to

be the author of this Praatisaakhya, which is also known as Kautsa Vyakarana.

In sixteenth century AD, the method of the study of grammar propounded by Panini began to
be replaced to some extent by the tradition of Kaatantra. In that tradition, Siddhanta Kaumudi of
Bhattoji Dikshit and Prakriya Sarvasa of Narayana Bhatta are most prominent. Vyakarana
developed also in the field of philosophy, and Bhartrihari who belonged to the sixth century AD
initiated this.

Nighantu / Nirukta (including Bhavprakash by Yashkaacharya):-

Nirukta is a kind of commentary on Nighantu, which is a collection of difficult words of the

Veda. Nighantu is supposed to have been one meaning, and in the fourth chapter, it gives a
collection of those words, which have several meanings. In the fifth chapter, the names of Vedic
gods have been collected. There have been many commentaries on Nighantu, but it is the
commentary of Yaksha, which has found its place as one of the Vedaangas, and this Vedaanga is
known as Nirukta. Nirukta is not confined only to meanings of words; it traces the words to their
originals, and it indicates how different similar or dissimilar words arose from those origins. The
principle that all names originated from verbs is an important principle of Nirukta, and even
modern linguists accept this principle. Prior to Yaksha also, there were many methods and
systems of Vedic interpretation, such as Aadhi-daivata, Aadhyaatma, Aakhyaana-Samaya,
Aitihaasika, Naidaana, Paarivraaajaka, Yaajnika, etc.

Chando Granth (prosody poetry):-

The composition of the Vedas indicates consummate development of the knowledge of the
poetic meter, chhandas. The first discussion on Vedic meters is to be found in the
Saankhyaayana Srauta-sutra. But the classical work on meters is that of Maharshi Pingal. Meters
or chhandas have been studied by Pingal in the eighth chapter of his book Chhandah-sutra. In
this book, he has taken into account not only Vedic meters but also others. There are mainly
seven Vedic meters, namely, Gayatri, Ushnik, Anushtubh, Brhati, Pankti, Trishtubh, and Jagati.
According to Kaatyaayana, the highest number of mantras in the Rig-Veda is to be found in
Trishtubh. This number is 4253. Gayatri has 24 67 mantras; Ushnik has 341 mantras; Pankti has
312 mantras, and Brahti has 181 mantras. Although there are numerous meters, we find only 50
meters in the Sanskrit literature.

Prior to Pingalacharya, there were several great teachers of Chhanda Sastra, such as Koshtuki,
Yaksha, Kaashyapa and Maandavya. There have been several commentaries on the Chhanda-
sutra of Pingalacharya. In fact, there has been a continuous development of books on Chhanda
Sastra.

The development of musical science also owed a great deal to Chhanda Sastra. It is well
known that the Sama-Veda is to sing. Although the method of singing the Sama is different from
that of classical music, the seven tunes, namely, shadja, rishabha, gandhara, madhyama,
panchama, dhaivata, and nishaada are used in Sama in the same way as in classical music. In the
Chhaandogya Upanisad which is based upon the Sama-Veda, five types of musical renderings of
the Sama have been indicated, namely, Himkaara, Prastaava, Udgitha, Pratihaar and Nidhaan. It
is noteworthy that Vedic literature refers also to several musical instruments, including the
veena. In social life, too, because of the close connection between religious rites and music,
various melodies developed, particularly six melodies corresponding to the six seasons. Closely
connected with music was the development of dance and drama. Among the important works in
Sanskrit regarding music, dance and drama the most important one is Naatya Sastra of Bharat
Muni. There are two Samhitas on Natya Sastra, namely, Dwaadasha Sahasri and Shat Sahasri.
The traditions established by Bharat Muni remained prevalent for more than a thousand years,
and even in the book Sangeet Ratnaakar or Sharangadeva of thirteenth century AD, the authority
of Bharat Muni has been acknowledged. Thereafter also there has been a vast literature on music,
dance and drama. In fact, music, dance, and drama received royal patronage throughout the ages,
and some of the great kings of the north and south were themselves great musicians.

Jyotish / Astronomy and Astrophysics:-

The sixth Vedaanga relates to Jyotisa - astronomy and astrology. Jyotisa is considered to be
the science of light, and it is looked upon as the eyes among the Vedaangas. Vedic knowledge
had discovered an inner rhythm cosmic movement, and this rhythm seems to correspond with
periodic developments and seasons of human life. The transit of planets, calculation of days and
nights and the determination of various seasons were closely studied. The science of Jyotisa
described planets, constellations, comets and also the rotations and revolutions of various
luminous objects of the heavens.

Rig-Veda Jyotisa Vedaanga has been attributed to Lagadhaacharya. It consists of 36 verses.

There is also a Jyotisa related to the Yajur-Veda and another related to Atharva-Veda. Yajur-
Veda Jyotisa consists of 34 verses, and it has been attributed to Shoshaacharya. Atharva-Veda
Jyotisa has 14 chapters and 102 verses. It is supposed to be a dialogue between Pitaamaha who
was the speaker and Kashyapa who was the listener.

Among the greatest astronomers and astrologers of India, the most celebrated name is that of
Varaahamihira. His famous book, Pancha Siddhaantika speaks of five systems of jyotisa:
Pitamaha Siddhaanta, Vasistha Siddhaanta, Romaka Siddhaanta, Poulisha Siddhaanta, and Surya
Siddhaanta. In due course, Jyotisa inspired the development of various sciences including
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, astronomy, and astrology. Bhaskaraacharya of twelfth century AD
is regarded as the first among the mathematicians and astrologers of the middle ages. Jyotisa is
even today prevalent all over India, and it is even now a developing science. The Panchaanga,
which gives detailed information regarding the tithi, vaara, nakshatra, yoga and karana, is
commonly used in most Indian homes; and the annuals of the Panchaanga are constantly
consulted by astronomers, astrologers and many individuals in day-to-day life.

Dharmasastra:

Dharmasastra is a genus of Sanskrit texts, and refers to the treatises (shastras) of Hinduism on
Dharma. The Dharmashastras are the ancient law books of Hindus, which advocate moral laws
and principles for devout duty and righteous conduct for the followers of the faith. They also
shaped the guidelines for their social and religious code of conduct Hindus in the past where
Hindu monarchs enforced the laws as part of their religious duty. However, looking to the
heterogeneity and complex nature of Indian society from the earlier times, it is difficult to state
how seriously these laws were imposed by the ruling classes among all sections of society.
However, the Dharmashastras highlighted upon the social and religious conditions of ancient
India, family life, gender and caste based distinctions, and principles of ancient jurisprudence. It
can be find in them rudiments of many principles and practices of social and religious aspects of
modern Hindu civilisation.

The Dharma Shastras, along with the Artha Shastras, are the codes of Hindu law, parallel to the
Muslim Sharia, the Jewish Talmud, each of which provides guidelines for kings, ministers,
judicial systems and law enforcement agencies. These spiritual-parliamentary codes differ from
British and American law, which separate religion from politics. (Contemporary British law is
influenced by Anglican Christian thought, just as American democracy was, and is, profoundly
affected by the philosophy of its non-Christian, Deistic founders.) The Dharma Shastras also
speak of much more, including creation, initiation, the stages of life, daily rites, duties of
husband and wife, varnasrama, Vedic study, penances and transmigration.

All Dharmaśāstra derives its authority with reference to the Vedas, though few, if any, of the
contents of most Dharmaśāstra texts can be directly linked with extant Vedic texts. Traditionally,
Dharmaśāstra has, since the time of the Yājñvalkyasmṛti, been divided into three major topics: 1)
ācāra, rules pertaining to daily rituals, life-cycle rites, and other duties of four castes or varṇas, 2)
vyavahāra, rules pertaining to the procedures for resolving doubts about dharma and rules of
substantive law categorized according the standard eighteen titles of Hindu law, and 3)
prāyaścitta, rules about expiations and penances for violations of the rules of dharma.

Mimansa :

Mīmāṃsā ("investigation" (compare Greek ἱστορία), is the name of an astika school of Hindu
philosophy whose primary enquiry is into the nature of dharma based on close hermeneutics of
the Vedas

man” = to think, consider, examine or investigate = “desire to think”. Mimamsa is divided

into two systems:

Purvamimamsa (“purva” = earlier ~ the earlier part of the Vedas) – an interpretation of the
actions leading to freedom of the Soul. Also called Karma Mimamsa.

Uttarmimamsa (“uttara” = later ~ the later part of the Vedas) – an interpretation of the
knowledge leading to freedom of the soul. Also called Jnana Mimamsa.

The basic premise of Mimamsa is that action is the very essence of human existence. Without
action knowledge is fruitless, happiness is impossible and human destiny cannot be fulfilled. The
purpose of Mimamsa is to inquire into the nature of Right Action (Dharma).

All actions are said to have two effects – external and internal. The external is gross, manifest
and transitory. The internal is subtle and eternal. Actions are the vehicles for planting the seeds
of life to come (aside: the word seed caused me to wonder if this relates to the idea of Vasana).
In this light Mimamsa examines all the actions mentioned in the Vedas and offers a general
summary of rules for the interpretation of Vedic texts.

Mimamsa accepts the philosophical concept of the other systems and does not enter any
philosophical analysis of the nature of Reality, Soul & Matter or their relationships to one
another. The sole concern of Mimamsa is salvation, not liberation. It argues that salvation cannot
be achieved by knowledge alone, for the soul must first exhaust its potentialities through action
(no amount of contemplation will enable man to arrive at the ultimate goal of human destiny).
All arguments are based on the premises that the soul by definition must survive this earthly
manifestation.

Mimamsa has a strong effect on the daily life of Hindu’s. All rituals and ceremonies depend on
it, all moral conduct is guided by it; all Hindu law is founded upon it.

Mimamsa defined Dharma as “an object distinguished by a command”. “dhar” = to hold,

maintain, preserve. When used in the metaphysical sense, it means those universal laws of
Nature that sustain the operation of the universe and the manifestation of all things, that without
which nothing could be. When applied to the individual, it has reference to that code of conduct
that sustains the soul and enables man to fulfill his divine destiny.

All rituals and ceremonies in the Vedas are said to lead to the enlightenment of the mind and the
spiritual evolution of the soul. On the surface they appear to be fruitless injunctions; therefore
Mimamsa endeavors to show how they are all based on dharma and lead to the spiritual welfare
of man.

Mimamsa claims that knowledge of dharma can only be attained by Verbal Testimony (Sabda) –
every word has in an inherent power to convey its eternal meaning and teaching. There are a few
refutes offered to the challenges made against this claim for example:

Claim: the word is a product of utterance therefore not eternal. Refute: the word must have
existed previously otherwise it could not have been pronounced.

Claim: the word vanished after its pronounced. Refute: only the sound disappears, the word
remains.

Claim: the word can be modified. Refute: changes of letters are not modifications, they are
new words.

Mimamsa classifies the Vedas under five categories:

Vidhi – Injunctions (do’s)

Mantras - Hymns – texts which help to remember the procedures of rituals.

 Namadheya – Names – which define matter.

Nisedha – Prohibitions (dont’s) that protect a man from doing things which may be injurious
or disadvantageous to him.

Arthavada – Explanations – which praise Vidhi’s and blame Nisedha’s.

Mimamsa can be understood from the way it defends objections that are raised against Vedic
mantras. For example:

Objection: Vedic mantras do not convey meanings because they stand in need of other
passages to explain and support them. Defense: All Vedic words have significance just as they
do in ordinary language.

Objection: Vedic mantras are held useless because they describe what does not exist. For
example “It has four horns, it has three feet, two heads, it has seven hands; the bull being tied
threefold, cries: the great god entered amongst the mortals”. Defense: this is figurative speech
that use symbols.

Objection: Vedic mantras are held to be useless because they are learned without
understanding their meaning. Defense: this is no fault of the Veda which deals only with the
performance of sacrifices. It is assumed that meaning will be learned.

Objection: Vedic mantras are held to be useless because there are many mantras the meaning
of which cannot be known. Defense: every mantra has a meaning. Our ignorance is due to
careless and indolence.

Purana:

Purana, (Sanskrit: “Ancient”) in the sacred literature of Hinduism, any of a number of popular
encyclopaedic collections of myth, legend, and genealogy, varying greatly as to date and origin.

Puranas were written almost entirely in narrative couplets, in much the same easy flowing style
as the two great Sanskrit epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The early Puranas
were probably compiled by upper-caste authors who appropriated popular beliefs and ideas from
people of various castes. Later Puranas reveal evidence of vernacular influences and the infusion
of local religious traditions.

Traditionally, a Purana is said to treat five subjects, or “five signs”: the primary creation of the
universe, secondary creation after periodic annihilation, the genealogy of gods and patriarchs, the
reigns of the Manus (the first humans), and the history of the solar and lunar dynasties. Creation
and dissolution (sarga, “emission,” and samhara, “gathering in”) occur when Prajapati, a creator
figure of the Vedic age, emits the universe and opens it, but everything is always in it, just
alternately revealed (manifest) or concealed (latent); sarga lets it out, and samhara pulls it back
in.
The Puranas also treat various topics concerning religious developments that occurred between
about 400 and 1500 ce. Those additional topics include customs, ceremonies, sacrifices,
festivals, caste duties, donations, the construction of temples and images, and places of
pilgrimage. The genealogies of gods, Manus, and kings form an open-ended structure into which
individual authors place whatever they wish to talk about (though some Puranas ignore the
genealogies entirely). The questions of primary concern to those authors are how to live a pious
life and how to worship the gods. Such worship includes the rituals (pujas) that should be
performed at home, in the temple, and on special festival days; places to go on pilgrimage;
prayers to recite; and stories to tell and listen to. Significantly, most of those rituals do not
require the mediation of a Brahman priest.

There are traditionally 18 Puranas, but there are several different lists of the 18, as well as some
lists of more or fewer than 18. The earliest Puranas, composed perhaps between 350 and 750 ce,
are the Brahmanda, Devi, Kurma, Markandeya, Matsya, Vamana, Varaha, Vayu, and Vishnu.
The next earliest, composed between 750 and 1000, are the Agni, Bhagavata, Bhavishya,
Brahma, Brahmavaivarta, Devibhagavata, Garuda, Linga, Padma, Shiva, and Skanda. Finally,
the most recent, composed between 1000 and 1500, are the Kalika, Kalki, Mahabhagavata,
Naradiya, and Saura.

All the Puranas are strongly sectarian—some devoted to Shiva, some to Vishnu, and some to a
goddess. But even those officially devoted to a particular god often pay considerable attention to
other gods. By far the most popular Purana is the Bhagavata-purana, with its elegant treatment of
the childhood and early life of Krishna. There are also 18 “lesser” Puranas, or upa-puranas,
which treat similar material, and a large number of sthala-puranas (“local Puranas”) or
mahatmyas (“magnifications”), which glorify temples or sacred places and are recited in the
services at those temples.

Tarka sastra:

Tarka Sastra is a science of dialectics, logic and reasoning, and art of debate that analyzes the
nature and source of knowledge and its validity. Sastra in Sanskrit means that which gives
teaching, instruction or command. Tarka means debate or an argument. According to one
reckoning, there are six sastras. Vyakarana is one of them. Four of the sastras are particularly
important Vyakarana, Mimamsa, Tarka, and Vedanta.

The sastra has concepts called "poorva paksha" and "apara paksha". When one raises a point
(poorva paksha) the other one criticizes it (apara paksha). Then the debate starts. Each one tries
to support his point of view by getting various references. The meaning of the word tarka also is
specific, in that it does not imply a pure logical analysis but a complex activity of discourse
guided by strict definitions and goals so as to have. This concept is referred in Bhagawad Gita as
"vadah pravadatAmasmi" (vibhooti yoga).

Tarkasamgraha which is the foundational text of logic and discourse was al the text followed as a
Guidelines for discourses. Tarka may be translated as "hypothetical argument." Tarka is the
process of questioning and cross-questioning that leads to a particular conclusion. It is a form of
supposition that can be used as an aid to the attainment of valid knowledge.

There are several scholars well-versed in Tarka Sastras – Adi Shankara (788-820 CE),
Ramanujacharya,Madhwacharya, Uddyotkar (Nyayavartik, 6th-7th century), Vācaspati Miśra
(Tatparyatika, 9th century), Udayanacharya (Tatparyaparishuddhi, 10th century), Jayanta Bhatta
(Nyayamanjari, 9th century), Vishwanath (Nyayasutravrtti, 17th century), and Radhamohan
Goswami (Nyayasutravivaran, 18th century), Kumaran Asan. Paruthiyur Krishna Sastri and
Sengalipuram Anantarama Dikshitar were specialized in Vyakarana, Mimamsa and Tarka Sastra.
Also, Krishna Sastri excelled all those scholars of his contemporary period in Tarka Sastra.

UNIT – II
MODERN SCIENCE AND INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
YOGA HOLISTIC HEALTH CARE

MODERN SCIENCE AND INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM:

We seldom realize the importance of what Einstein said

- We should be thankful to Indians who taught us how to count without which no worthwhile
scientific discovery would have been possible.

We fail to recognize the magnitude of the famous British Historian Grant Duff’s words

- Many of the advances in the sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were
in fact made in India centuries ago.

We ignore what the American Historian Will Durant said

- India was the motherland of our race and Sanskrit the mother of Europe’s languages. India was
the mother of our philosophy, of much of our mathematics, of the ideals embodied in
Christianity… of self-government and democracy. In many ways, Mother India is the mother of
us all.

Most of us are not even aware of the historical facts which the famous French philosopher and
writer Voltaire knew when he wrote

- It is very important to note that some 2,500 years ago at the least Pythagoras went from Samos
to the Ganges to learn geometry…But he would certainly not have undertaken such a strange
journey had the reputation of the Brahmins’ science not been long established in Europe

Sanskrit is the sine qua non of ancient Indian knowledge systems. It is the key for the treasure
house of ancient Indian wisdom. Sanskrit itself is one of the earliest inventions of ancient
scientific pursuits in the human world. In a so organized manner the physiognomic origin of
speech sounds was well depic ted in the ancient Indian texts on Sanskrit language even in Pre -
Paninian Times.The earliest traces of the concept of social living are well documented in
Sanskrit.Since then Sanskrit has, through several millennia,been growing as the binding force of
all the people of this Sub - Continent. From Kargil to Kanya Kumari and from Kamarupa to
Saurastra, the whole India is one for every Indian because of his possessiveness for Sanskrit. The
geographical descriptions available in ancient Sanskrit texts describe India as a single whole and
never view it partly. This lofty idea of ‘One Nation – One people’ with regard to our country is
as old as the Vedic tradition.

In the anatomic analysis of the linguistic body of India all the regional languages play the
efficient role of various limbs. Each of the limbs should be strong, good and well structured
enough for a healthy body. So also all the regional languages, which are the striking marks of
Indian diversity, are strengt hening the country from all sides. At the same time as the heart does
purify the blood and pumps to all the limbs for their proper and efficient functioning Sanskrit
supplies all the phonetic, morphological, semantic and syntactical elements and even the
common and technical vocabulary to all the Indian languages irrespective of their Indo -
European or Dravidian origin. This unifying nature of Sanskrit earned it a unique place among
all the languages of our country. The sovereignty of linguistic India could be protected through
Sanskrit and surely not through any other regional language.

One who systematically learns Sanskrit with commitment will imbibe all the noble qualities like
Ahimsa (Non Violence), Karuna (Compassion) and aitri(Friendliness). These assimilated
qualities will ensure one to have an incomparable personality with an exemplary individuality.
Right from the Vedic times the Indian intellectuals are after the pursuit of establishing
harmonious relation between the man and the Nature. They always advocate the mother and son
relationship between the Nature and the man. The trees, the streams, the hill and dale, the sky
and the earth, the oceans and rivers and every other thing in nature from pebble to peninsul ar is
very much lively, divine and dynamic for our ancestors of Sanskrit culture. As all the western
languages are indebted to Greek, the spring fountain of the western scientific terminology, so are
all the Indian regional languages even today owe much to Sanskrit to coin new scientific terms in
India. So it is very much essential for every scientist and expert of technology to learn Sanskrit
as a language and also as a source of many scientific disciplines of knowledge to prepare subject
wise glossaries of universal acceptance in the country to spread the science and technology to the
thresholds of all Indian villages in their regional languages.

Every country, while importing the foreign stocks of scientific and technological knowledge,
never disowns its own ancestral - indige nous knowledge in the respective fields. But in India we
disown our intellectual wealth and cling to a parasitic approach to import or dump western
technology which those countries have left some decades back. Always we have been lagging
behind even while adapting the western content.

Sastra and Science are synonymous:-

Here a little comparison may help to assess or evaluate the worth of our ancient Indian
knowledge systems. Observation, hypothesis, experimentation, forming the principles through
deduction and induction are if the essentials of science, the Sastras or various disciplines of
knowledge in Sanskrit too possess the same essentials in the name of three means of acquiring
knowledge viz. Pratyaksha (Direct Perception can otherwise be called Observation), Anumana
(The process of hypothesis, deduction and induction methods of logic) and Sabda (Verbal
testimony) which preserves all the principles of predecessors in text form. So the term Sastra can
synonymously be used with the term ‘science’. Scientific method was as old as the human
thought in this land of letters. Vedic literature was its main spring. Vedic seers were the first
generation scientists. They adopted the method of observation, experimentation and deduction to
produce the reliable phenomenal expatiation of various face ts of knowledge. In this pioneering
task they took the instrumental assistance too of a high technical value. Besides the three
dimensions observation, experimentation and deduction the seers took the help of the fourth
dimension intuition in producing such volumes of scientific literature.

Hence our ancient seers advanced a set of means of Knowledge to say in other words the
essentials for acquiring knowledge correspondingly representing the basic constituents of science
in the following manner.

Means of Knowledge Corresponding constituents of

Modern Science

1. Pratyaksha or Direct Perception - Observation

2. Direct Perception - Experimentation

3. Anumana or Inference - Deduction or Induction

4. Sabda or Verbal Testimony

and Yogaja Pratyaksha

(The intuitive perception) - Extra Sensual Perception

The Two Fold Streams of Sastras and the Big Data of Indian Knowledge:-
All the Disciplines of Ancient Indian knowledge are divided into two treams as Injunctive
Sciences and Mundane sciences adapting the methods of expansion of data, compression of data
and encryption of data. While the Injunctive Sciences (The Vedas) regulate the human
behavioral traits the Mundane sciences deal with the nature, scope and purpose of natural and
physical world for the comfortable living of mankind. As a result the following disciplines
through several millennia have been descended down to the modern world from the lineage of
seers of India.

The huge volumes of Veda Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Srauta/Grhya/Sulba

Sutra Texts, Shadangas, Anukramanika Texts, Pratisakhyas, 500 Smriti Texts, Six Orthodox
Systems of Philosophy, Two Itihasas – The Ramayana and The Mahabharata, 18 Puranas, Texts
on 64 Fine Arts, Agama Texts dealing with standard architectural techniques, Specialized
Lexicons (Kosa granthas) and Various Sastra Texts dealing with the living crafts of human societ
are even today name wise and title wise are available. In these huge volumes of treatises lot of
information is available pertaining to the modern areas of study such as Astronomy, Acoustics,
Agriculture, Architecture, Botany (with rich etymological notes on thousands of herbal plants),
Mathematics (with its branches of Arithmetic, Algebra, Trigonometry, Spherical Trigonometry,
Binomial Theorem, Geometry) , Metallurgy, Hydrology, Medicine, Physiological
Phonetics,Articulatory Phonetics, Meteorology, Seismology, Dietetics, Mineralogy,
Geology,Environmental Science, Cosmetics, Chemistry, Physics, Animal Husbandry,
Zoology,Cosmology, Psychology, Parapsychology, Moralogy and Management Studies. All
these knowledge sections can assure the modern world to lead a pollution free long life for
hundred and plus years. In the pursuit of tracing out the scientific contents in Sanskrit one has to
first have an introduction to various literary types of existing in this perennial language.To
broadly introduce the following are the major branches of various disciplines of knowledge
available in Sanskrit. They are -When compared to the modern scientific fields the contents of
those ancient texts are of three types as knowledge areas which have no modern parallels,
knowledge areas which have equal modern parallels and knowledge are as which seem lower to
the available modern areas of similar kind.

Branches of Sciences found in Sanskrit:-

An observation helps to understand that the following branches of science are traceable in
ancient Sanskrit literature.

Physical and Chemical Sciences:-

Nyaya and Vaiseshika systems give the earliest reference to the atoms of air,fire,water and earth.
Nyaya Darsana gives some information about preparing lenses.Manusmriti, Matsya Purana,
Ayurvedic and Rasatantra texts present the details of mensuration. Rasatantra Texts give an
abundant information of various metals,chemicals and chemical processing. An interesting
information of constructing a chemistry laboratory is available in all the famousRasatantra
Granthas.

Natural Sciences:-

The texts like Susruta Samhita, Amara kosa and Nirukta recorded the Indian system of Botanical
Taxonomy. Susruta Samhita, Rgveda and Atharva Veda and various Pauranic Texts give a good
amount of information with regard to the Medical Botany. In the texts on Vastu, some texts on
Vrkshayurveda and some epic sources present a detailed account of Agriculture and Gardening
methods. There is a reference to the sense perception of plants in the Mahabharata. The
Ramayana, Smritis and some Vedic texts give vivid picture of the classification of the animals
and make a deep study of their structure and the methods of curing diseases of different animals.

Indian Mathematics:-

Similarly in the field of Mathematics the process of counting numbers from one to Parartha in
ten multiples is mentioned in Krshna Yajurveda, Ramayana, Brahmanda Purana and other texts.
Lilavati is the text on Algebra. Suryasiddhanta deals with Trigonometry. Sulba Sutras of
Apstambha and others present a detailed study of Geometry for the purpose of structuring
Sacrificial Altars. Halayudha’s commentary on Pingala’s Chandas furnishes a good in formation
of Binary Arithmetic.

Earth and Space Sciences:-

Likewise in the text Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira we have a bulk of information with regard to
the process of finding out underwater currents. Nearly two hundred methods are presented which
can even today be put in practice. Seismology is another interesting subject available in the Brhat
Samhita of Varahamihira. Brahma Siddhanta, Vasistha Siddnata,Surya Siddhanta, Paulisa
Siddhanta and Romaka Siddhanta are the five famous Astronomical Works with wonderful
content pertaining to the Planets, their positions, moments and their influence over the
earth.Texts like amarangana Sutradhara, Maya Vastu etc., stand as a concrete proof for the
masterly knowledge of our ancient people in the field of Architecture.

BRANCHES OF SANSKRIT SCIENCE:

Physics and Chemical Sciences Natural Sciences:

* Nyaya and Vaiseshika Darsanas

* Manusmriti
* Matsya Purana
* Ayrvedic Texts
* Rasatantra Texts

Natural Sciences:
* Botany (Indian Taxonomy)
* Medical Botany- Amarakosa
* Agriculture – Krishi Parasara
* Zoology – Smritis and Kosas
* Indian Medicine – Ayurveda

Indian Mathematics
* Counting - Krshna Yajurveda, Epics & Puranas
* Algebra - Lilavati
* Trigonometry - Suryasiddhanta
* Geometry - Sulbasutras of Apastambha etc.
* Binary Arithmetic - Halayudha’s Commentary on Pingala’s Chandas

Earth and Space Sciences

* Geology - Brhat Samhita etc.
* Gemology - Ayurvedic Texts and Puranas, Rasa Tantras
* Seismology - Brhat Samhita etc.
* Astronomy - The Five Siddhantas
* Architecture - Samarangana

Humanities

* Behavioral Sciences
* State Craft
* Human Management
* Trade & Commerce
* The art of Making Ornaments
Fivefold sources of Scientific Literature in Sanskrit:

All the above sources of various disciplines of ancient Indian Knowledge systems are fivefold as:
Vedic Literature, Pauranic Literature, Independent Treatises related to the said modern areas,
Inter-disciplinary References and Classical Sanskrit Literature. Here is a set of illustrations
related to Mathematics and Botany from the said five sources. For the rest of the branches also
one can develop material from all these five streams.

S.NO SOURCE WORKS MATHEMATICS BOTANY

1 Vedic Literature Krshna Yjurveda Rigveda
Atharva Veda Taittiriya Samhita
Satapatha Brahmana Atharva Veda
Sulba Sutras Nirukta
2 Independent Treatises Lilavathi Vrukshayurveda
Sarangadhara
Paddhati
3 Puranas and Itihasas Ramayana, Mahabharata Ramayana
Mahabharata
Agnipurana
Garudapurana
Matsya Purana
4 Kavya literature Saundarya Lahari Works of Bhasa,
Kalidasa
Bana and others
5 References in the Other Pingala Chandas Manusmriti
disciplines Sangita Ratnakara Ayurveda
Vedanga Jyotisha Vastu
Other Astronomical works Amarakosa
Arthasastra
Jyotisha

If the process of learning all these branches of knowledge and arts is revived and introduced in a
novel way suitable to the modern times and to meet needs of our contemporary times it will be of
high advantage and the pride of our nation also can be well protected.

Significant Science and Tech Discoveries Ancient India Gave the World:

One of the oldest civilizations in the world, the Indian civilization has a strong tradition of
science and technology. Ancient India was a land of sages and seers as well as a land of scholars
and scientists. Research has shown that from making the best steel in the world to teaching the
world to count, India was actively contributing to the field of science and technology centuries
long before modern laboratories were set up. Many theories and techniques discovered by the
ancient Indians have created and strengthened the fundamentals of modern science and
technology. While some of these groundbreaking contributions have been acknowledged, some
are still unknown to most.

1. The Idea of Zero:

Little needs to be written about the mathematical digit ‘zero’, one of the most important
inventions of all time. Mathematician Aryabhata was the first person to create a symbol for zero
and it was through his efforts that mathematical operations like addition and subtraction started
using the digit, zero. The concept of zero and its integration into the place-value system also
enabled one to write numbers, no matter how large, by using only ten symbols.

2. The Decimal System

India gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols – the
decimal system. In this system, each symbol received a value of position as well as an absolute
value. Due to the simplicity of the decimal notation, which facilitated calculation, this system
made the uses of arithmetic in practical inventions much faster and easier.

3. Numeral Notations

Indians, as early as 500 BCE, had devised a system of different symbols for every number from
one to nine. This notation system was adopted by the Arabs who called it the hind numerals.
Centuries later, this notation system was adopted by the western world who called them the
Arabic numerals as it reached them through the Arab traders.

4. Fibbonacci Numbers

The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appear in Indian mathematics as mātrāmeru,
mentioned by Pingala in connection with the Sanskrit tradition of prosody. Later on, the methods
for the formation of these numbers were given by mathematicians Virahanka, Gopala and
Hemacandra , much before the Italian mathematician Fibonacci introduced the fascinating
sequence to Western European mathematics.

5. Binary Numbers

Binary numbers is the basic language in which computer programs are written. Binary basically
refers to a set of two numbers, 1 and 0, the combinations of which are called bits and bytes. The
binary number system was first described by the Vedic scholar Pingala, in his book
Chandahśāstra, which is the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody ( the study of poetic
metres and verse).

6. Chakravala method of Algorithms

The chakravala method is a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations,

including the Pell’s equation. This method for obtaining integer solutions was developed by
Brahmagupta, one of the well known mathematicians of the 7th century CE. Another
mathematician, Jayadeva later generalized this method for a wider range of equations, which was
further refined by Bhāskara II in his Bijaganita treatise.

7. Ruler Measurements

Excavations at Harappans sites have yielded rulers or linear measures made from ivory and shell.
Marked out in minute subdivisions with amazing accuracy, the calibrations correspond closely
with the hasta increments of 1 3/8 inches, traditionally used in the ancient architecture of South
India. Ancient bricks found at the excavation sites have dimensions that correspond to the units
on these rulers.

8. A Theory of Atom

One of the notable scientists of the ancient India was Kanad who is said to have devised the
atomic theory centuries before John Dalton was born. He speculated the existence of anu or a
small indestructible particles, much like an atom. He also stated that anu can have two states —
absolute rest and a state of motion. He further held that atoms of same substance combined with
each other in a specific and synchronized manner to produce dvyanuka (diatomic molecules) and
tryanuka (triatomic molecules).

9. The Heliocentric Theory

Mathematicians of ancient India often applied their mathematical knowledge to make accurate
astronomical predictions. The most significant among them was Aryabhatta whose book,
Aryabhatiya, represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. He correctly
propounded that the Earth is round, rotates on its own axis and revolves around the Sun i.e the
heliocentric theory. He also made predictions about the solar and lunar eclipses, duration of the
day as well as the distance between the Earth and the Moon.

10. Wootz Steel

A pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in India, Wootz steel is a crucible steel characterized
by a pattern of bands that was known in the ancient world by many different names such as
Ukku, Hindwani and Seric Iron. This steel was used to make the famed Damascus swords of
yore that could cleave a free-falling silk scarf or a block of wood with the same ease. Produced
by the Tamils of the Chera Dynasty, the finest steel of the ancient world was made by heating
black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible kept inside a charcoal
furnace.

11. Smelting of Zinc

India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique derived from a
long experience of ancient alchemy. The ancient Persians had also attempted to reduce zinc
oxide in an open furnace but had failed. Zawar in the Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the world’s first
known ancient zinc smelting site. The distillation technique of zinc production goes back to the
12th Century AD and is an important contribution of India to the world of science.

12. Seamless Metal Globe

Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, the first seamless celestial globe was
made in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in the reign of the Emperor Akbar. In a major feat
in metallurgy, Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting to make twenty
other globe masterpieces in the reign of the Mughal Empire. Before these globes were
rediscovered in the 1980s, modern metallurgists believed that it was technically impossible to
produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.

13. Plastic Surgery

Written by Sushruta in 6th Century BC, Sushruta Samhita is considered to be one of the most
comprehensive textbooks on ancient surgery. The text mentions various illnesses, plants,
preparations and cures along with complex techniques of plastic surgery. The Sushruta Samhita
’s most well-known contribution to plastic surgery is the reconstruction of the nose, known also
as rhinoplasty.

14. Cataract Surgery

The first cataract surgery is said to have been performed by the ancient Indian physician
Sushruta, way back in 6th century BCE. To remove the cataract from the eyes, he used a curved
needle, Jabamukhi Salaka, to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The
eye would then be bandaged for a few days till it healed completely. Sushruta’s surgical works
were later translated to Arabic language and through the Arabs, his works were introduced to the
West.

15. Ayurveda

Long before the birth of Hippocrates, Charaka authored a foundational text, Charakasamhita, on
the ancient science of Ayurveda. Referred to as the Father of Indian Medicine, Charaka was was
the first physician to present the concept of digestion, metabolism and immunity in his book.
Charaka’s ancient manual on preventive medicine remained a standard work on the subject for
two millennia and was translated into many foreign languages, including Arabic and Latin.

16. Iron-Cased Rockets

The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the 1780s by Tipu Sultan of Mysore who
successfully used these rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company
during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. He crafted long iron tubes, filled them with gunpowder and
fastened them to bamboo poles to create the predecessor of the modern rocket. With a range of
about 2 km, these rockets were the best in the world at that time and caused as much fear and
confusion as damage. Due to them, the British suffered one of their worst ever defeats in India at
the hands of Tipu.

Yoga for holistic health care:

Yoga for Holistic Health The word Yoga means “to join” or “to merge”. The concept of Yoga is
to merge the Soul of the practitioner to the Eternal Soul by using certain sets of social, physical
and mental rituals and regimens. Yoga has been practiced for thousands of years in India and has
risen in popularity around the globe recently. Today most people identify Yoga only with Asna,
the physical practice of Yoga but there are other tools of which are: Conscious breathing
(Pranayama), Meditation (Dhaarna),Life-style and dietary changes (Yama and Niyama) and
Visualization (Dhayaana) etc. These tools address all dimensions of human system, body, breath,
mind, personality and emotions. Yoga has many parts, one of the most important among them is
Astanga Yoga, which as name suggests comprises of eight parts namely- Yama, Niyama, Asna,
Pranayama, Pratyahaar, Dhaarna, Dhyaan and Samadhi. Astanga Yoga provides complete sets of
rituals and practices which helps attaining the complete state of health. In the present era of
globalization and industrialization various aspects of health like spiritual, social and mental
health are being ignored for materialistic benefits which has a huge impact on Physical health
also and this urbanization leads to ill behaviors like hatred, violence and social disharmony
which are not good for the self as well as for the socialism. Now as per the definition of health
by WHO: “Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing of a
person and not merely the absence of disease.” Among the eight parts of Astanga Yoga- Yama
and Niyama are used for attaining perfect personal hygiene, social health and social harmony
thus preventing communicable diseases, nonsocial behaviors. Asna and Pranayama are used to
attain proper physical strength and wellbeing. Pratyahaar being the bridge between the extrinsic
and intrinsic Yoga. Dhaarna, Dhayaan and Samadhi are the steps to attain full spiritual and
mental wellbeing but are hard to achieve. Thus role of Yoga (Astanga Yoga) in holistic health
achievement is very much clear and it can be used as a powerful tool in preventing the
communicable, psychosomatic and physical diseases as the ancient proverb says: “Prevention is
always better than cure.”

Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali -an Art and Science of Holistic Health and Wellbeing

Ashtanga Yoga of Maharshi Patanjali is a classical work on Yoga philosophy. The Yoga sutras
of the sage provide the comprehensive understanding on the principles and practices of the
subject with its scientific background. The discussion on human psychology and its interactions
on our body are meticulously explained along with the solutions to be applied for the experience
of the life filled with happiness, health and joy in abundance.

The concept of holistic health and wellbeing is achieved through Ashtanga Yoga using its
science, technique and philosophy. This structured Curriculum of Classical Yoga in India has
significantly contributed the guidelines for the health and lifestyle.

Sadhana Pada or the study of eight limbs is an important tool for practitioner or Yoga teacher to
climb the ladder of the highest step in Yogic path. This section of the study will enhance the
ability of the Yoga practitioner in all the dimensions of his personality such as physical, mental,
emotional and moral levels in order to culminate in the spiritual journey.

What are these eights limbs of Yoga?

Patanjala Yoga Sutra II.29 describes the list of eight limbs as follows Yoga Sutras. Ashta means
eight and Anga means limbs, these are

1. Yama

2. Niyama
3. Asana

4. Pranayama

5. Pratyhahara

6. Dharana

7. Dhayna

8. Samadhi

1. Yama - Code of Conduct:

Yama is the practice of Social code of conduct. These values are helpful to maintain the harmony
in the society with an individual. They harness the principles of live and let live for the
sustainable eco friendly environment in the society using the concepts of sharing and caring. The
collective practice of these principles in Yoga regularizes the behavior and personality free from
moral impurities. There are five such disciplines, they are -

a. Ahimsa - Non Violence

b. Satya - Truth fullness

c. Asteya- Non Stealing

d. Brahmacahrya - Continence

e. Aparigraha - Non possessiveness

2. Niyama - Personal Observances

Niyama is the second lesson which is of personal observances. These practices are important to
enhance the quality of our willpower, intellect and emotions. This yogic discipline is foundation
for the removal of emotional impurities which are stemming from mental toxins such as the
feelings of hatred and jealousy. Yama and Niyama together form the structural basis for the
ethical preparation which is an essence of every Yoga Teacher Training Course. They contribute
for the mental peace through the purification of our senses, mind and body. The five personal
observances are,

a. Saucha -Cleanliness

b. Santosha - Contentment

c. Tapas -Austerity

d. Swadhyaya -Self study

e. Ishwar pranidhana - Devotion

3. Asana-body Posture - A Practice for the disciplining the body:

Asana is stable and comfortable body posture. The Practice of Asana brings the steadiness,
feeling of lightness and well being. The regular practice of yoga postures develops the best
possible physical and mental health. It overcomes the dualities of the mind and body. It is a
remedy for the removal of the obstacles such as physical illness. Removal of physical impurities
takes place through the poses. They contribute for the homeostasis which is a state of balance in
the psycho-physiological, neuro muscular as well as endocrinal mechanisms. There are various
therapeutical benefits of Asana for the different systems of our body. It is an important
preparation for the practices of pranayama and meditation too. Classical texts on Hatha yoga
training syllabus explain the various types of Asana like cultural, meditative and Relaxative
poses.

4. Pranayama - Regulation of the Vital force

Upon the successful practice of Asana, The Pranayama Practice is undertaken. This practice is
useful in the regulation of the vital force. The breath and mind have strong relationships; the
stability of the mind is the result of the stability of the breath. It is a process of the purification of
the nadis- the subtle energy channels in our systems. The energetic anatomy and physiology of
the human body is influenced through these techniques to the greater extent. The blockage in the
energy channels dissipates the pranic energy leading to imbalances which result in mental
sickness and physical sufferings in the form of abnormal conditions. Different types of
Pranayama practices bring the calmness to the mind, develops the qualification for the mental
concentration.

5. Prathyahara - Regulation of the senses.

Prathyahara is the practice of disciplining the senses; this technique establishes the perfection in
the mastery for the sense control .Serenity of the mind is possible when our sense organs are
under control. Techniques like Yoga Nidra, Inner silence are very good for the training of the
senses. The practice helps to eliminate the source of the disturbance by disassociating the
sensory inputs to the sense organs from their corresponding objects.

6. Dharana

Dharana - Concentration

The practice of concentration is fixing the mind on the object of meditation. This practice
reduces the fluctuations of the mental modifications. It is the result of the first five limbs of
practices which are called as bahiranga Yoga. The concentration leads the attainment of
meditation.
7. Dhayna

Dhayna - Meditation

The Practice of Meditation is an unbroken flow of the awareness on the chosen object of
contemplation. The physiology of the meditation impacts the entire aspects of our personality
from the gross to the subtle experience. This technique harmonizes the physical, mental and
emotional experiences to enjoy the state of holistic health and feeling of wellbeing.

8. Samadhi - The absolute absorption with supreme

This is the highest state of Yoga Sadhana. It is an experience of the bliss in the core of our being.
The progressive approach on concentration and meditation gets culminated in this supreme state
of Yoga

Holistic Health Benefits of Yoga:

Physical Health:
1. Flexibility: The most obvious health benefit of yoga is flexibility. By gently stretching and
holding poses, your ligaments and tendons elongate, and you gain greater range of motion
throughout your body.
2. Balance: Tree pose and Half-Moon are examples of postures that increase balance and
confidence. These poses will decrease the likelihood of sustaining injury by falling. Balance
poses also increase your strength and coordination.
3. Digestive and Organ Health: Poses like Seated Twist and Cat pose gently massage organs
and increase blood flow. This results in detoxification, better circulation and increased energy.
Good organ health is vital in the prevention of disease.
Mental Health
4. Memory: By engaging in postures, breathing exercises and meditations, you learn to keep
your mind clear for longer periods. This dramatically improves concentration and focus. Yoga
also increases blood flow to the brain.
5. Stress Reduction: A major benefit of yoga is stress reduction. Stress is a leading cause of
physical and mental dysfunction. Stress is the trigger mechanism for many health conditions,
pains, and aches. Yoga incorporates controlled breathing, called pranayama, into the practice. By
learning these powerful techniques, you can actually tackle a stressful situation at the onset, by
just taking a moment to breathe.
Spiritual Health
6. Awareness: When you begin to practice yoga, you build self-awareness. You find you are no
longer sleepwalking through life, but feel connected to yourself and others. This empowers you
to make better decisions and be more compassionate.
7. Peacefulness: The practice of chanting and meditation, in combination with yoga, will
enhance your ability to be in the moment. Learning this skill calms the mind and creates a
peaceful, satisfied state of being.
If you are looking to make positive changes, you will find that a regular yoga practice can be
beneficial to most any aspect of your life. Yoga can bring you more happiness, productivity,
creativity, and energy. It can improve your posture, your digestion, your relationships, and your
overall health. It just makes perfect sense to get on the mat, and begin your journey to your very
best self.
UNIT – III
INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITION
A) ORTHODOX (HINDU) SCHOOL: SAMKYA, YOGA, NYAYA, VAISHESHIKA,
PURVA MIMAMSA, VEDHANTA
B) HETORODOX (NON-HINDU) SCHOOLS: CARVAKA, JAIN, BUDDHA
Introduction:
Indian Philosophy India has a rich and diverse philosophical tradition dating back to the
composition of the Upanishads in the later Vedic period. According to Radhakrishnan, the oldest
of these constitute " the earliest philosophical compositions of the world." Indian philosophy, the
systems of thought and reflection that were developed by the civilizations of the Indian
subcontinent. They include both orthodox (astika) systems, namely, the Nyaya, Vaisheshika,
Samkhya, Yoga, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and
unorthodox (nastika) systems, such as Buddhism and Jainism. Indian thought has been concerned
with various philosophical problems, significant among which are the nature of the world
(cosmology), the nature of reality (metaphysics), logic, the nature of knowledge (epistemology),
ethics, and the philosophy of religion.
Since the late medieval age (ca.1000-1500) various schools (Skt: Darshanas) of Indian
philosophy are identified as orthodox (Skt: astika) or non-orthodox (Skt: nastika) depending on
whether they regard the Veda as an infallible source of knowledge. There are six schools of
orthodox Hindu philosophy and three heterodox schools. The orthodox are Nyaya, Vaisesika,
Samkhya, Yoga, Purva mimamsa and Vedanta. The Heterodox are Jain, Buddhist and materialist
(Cārvāka). However, Vidyāraṇya classifies Indian philosophy into sixteen schools where he
includes schools belonging to Saiva and Raseśvara thought with others.
The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised chiefly between 1000 BC to the early
centuries AD. Subsequent centuries produced commentaries and reformulations continuing up to
as late as the 20th century by Aurobindo and Prabhupada among others. Competition and
integration between the various schools was intense during their formative years, especially
between 800 BC to 200 AD. Some like the Jain, Buddhist, Shaiva and Advaita schools survived,
while others like Samkhya and Ajivika did not, either being assimilated or going extinct. The
Sanskrit term for "philosopher" is dārśanika, one who is familiar with the systems of philosophy,
or darśanas.
Significance of Indian philosophies in the history of philosophy:
In relation to Western philosophical thought, Indian philosophy offers both surprising points of
affinity and illuminating differences. The differences highlight certain fundamentally new
questions that the Indian philosophers asked. The similarities reveal that, even when
philosophers in India and the West were grappling with the same problems and sometimes even
suggesting similar theories, Indian thinkers were advancing novel formulations and
argumentations. Problems that the Indian philosophers raised for consideration, but that their
Western counterparts never did, include such matters as the origin (utpatti) and apprehension
(jnapti) of truth (pramanya). Problems that the Indian philosophers for the most part ignored but
that helped shape Western philosophy include the question of whether knowledge arises from
experience or from reason and distinctions such as that between analytic and synthetic judgments
or between contingent and necessary truths. Indian thought, therefore, provides the historian of
Western philosophy with a point of view that may supplement that gained from Western thought.
A study of Indian thought, then, reveals certain inadequacies of Western philosophical thought
and makes clear that some concepts and distinctions may not be as inevitable as they may
otherwise seem. In a similar manner, knowledge of Western thought gained by Indian
philosophers has also been advantageous to them.
Vedic hymns, Hindu scriptures dating from the 2nd millennium bce, are the oldest extant record
from India of the process by which the human mind makes its gods and of the deep
psychological processes of mythmaking leading to profound cosmological concepts. The
Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts) contain one of the first conceptions of a universal,
all-pervading, spiritual reality leading to a radical monism (absolute nondualism, or the essential
unity of matter and spirit). The Upanishads also contain early speculations by Indian
philosophers about nature, life, mind, and the human body, not to speak of ethics and social
philosophy. The classical, or orthodox, systems (darshanas) debate, sometimes with penetrating
insight and often with a degree of repetition that can become tiresome to some, such matters as
the status of the finite individual; the distinction as well as the relation between the body, mind,
and the self; the nature of knowledge and the types of valid knowledge; the nature and origin of
truth; the types of entities that may be said to exist; the relation of realism to idealism; the
problem of whether universals or relations are basic; and the very important problem of moksha,
or liberation (literally ―release‖)—its nature and the paths leading up to it.
Common themes:
The Indian thinkers of antiquity (very much like those of the Hellenistic schools) viewed
philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life
can best be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of
philosophical works how it serves human ends (puruṣārtha). Recent scholarship has shown that
there was a great deal of intercourse between Greek and Indian philosophy during the era of
Hellenistic expansion.
Indian philosophy is distinctive in its application of analytical rigour to metaphysical problems
and goes into very precise detail about the nature of reality, the structure and function of the
human psyche and how the relationship between the two have important implications for human
salvation (moksha). Rishis centred philosophy on an assumption that there is a unitary
underlying order (RTA) in the universe which is all pervasive and omniscient. The efforts by
various schools were concentrated on explaining this order and the metaphysical entity at its
source (Brahman). The concept of natural law (Dharma) provided a basis for understanding
questions of how life on earth should be lived. The sages urged humans to discern this order and
to live their lives in accordance with it.
Schools
Hindu philosophy
Orthodox (Himdu) School: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimansa,
Vedantha:
Many Hindu intellectual traditions were classified during the medieval period of
BrahmanicSanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox (astika) schools
(darshanas), the "Six Philosophies" (ṣad-darśana), all of which accept the testimony of the
Vedas.
Samkhya, the enumeration school
• Yoga, the school of Patanjali (which provisionally asserts the metaphysics of Samkhya)
• Nyaya, the school of logic
• Vaisheshika, the atomist school
• Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa), the tradition of Vedic exegesis, with emphasis on
Vedic ritual, and
• Vedanta (also called Uttara Mimamsa), the Upanishadic tradition, with emphasis on Vedic
philosophy.
These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons:
NyayaVaishesika, Samkhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-Vedanta. The Vedanta school is further
divided into six sub-schools: Advaita (monism/nondualism), also includes the concept of
Ajativada, Visishtadvaita (monism of the qualified whole), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita
(dualismnondualism), Suddhadvaita, and Achintya Bheda Abheda schools.
Besides these schools Mādhava Vidyāraṇya also includes the following of the aforementioned
theistic philosophies based on the Agamas and Tantras:
Pasupata, school of Shaivism by Nakulisa
• Saiva, the theistic Sankhya school
• Pratyabhijña, the recognitive school
• Raseśvara, the mercurial school
• Pāṇini Darśana, the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of Sphoṭa)

The main Hindu orthodox (astika) schools of Indian philosophy are those codified during the
medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism, and they take the ancient Vedas (the
oldest sacred texts of Hinduism) as their source and scriptural authority:

Samkhya:

Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems, and it postulates that everything in
reality stems from purusha (self or soul or mind) and prakriti (matter, creative agency, energy). It
is a dualist philosophy, although between the self and matter rather than between mind and body
as in the Western dualist tradition, and liberation occurs with the realization that the soul and the
dispositions of matter (steadiness, activity and dullness) are different.

Yoga:

The Yoga school, as expounded by Patanjali in his 2nd Century B.C. Yoga Sutras, accepts the
Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic, with the addition of a divine entity to
Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality. The relatively brief Yoga Sutras are divided into
eight ashtanga (limbs), reminiscent of Buddhism's Noble Eightfold Path, the goal being to quiet
one's mind and achieve kaivalya (solitariness or detachment).

Nyaya:

The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras, written by Aksapada Gautama in the 2nd
Century B.C. Its methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted
by the majority of the Indian schools, in much the same way as Aristotelian logic has influenced
Western philosophy. Its followers believe that obtaining valid knowledge (the four sources of
which are perception, inference, comparison and testimony) is the only way to gain release from
suffering. Nyaya developed several criteria by which the knowledge thus obtained was to be
considered valid or invalid (equivalent in some ways to Western analytic philosophy).

Vaisheshika:

The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada in the 6th Century B.C., and it is atomist and
pluralist in nature. The basis of the school's philosophy is that all objects in the physical universe
are reducible to a finite number of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that
causes consciousness in these atoms. The Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools eventually merged
because of their closely related metaphysical theories (although Vaisheshika only accepted
perception and inference as sources of valid knowledge).

Purva Mimamsa:

The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school is to interpret and establish the authority of the
Vedas. It requires unquestionable faith in the Vedas and the regular performance of the Vedic
fire-sacrifices to sustain all the activity of the universe. Although in general the Mimamsa accept
the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, they insist that salvation can only be
attained by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas. The school later shifted its
views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahman and freedom, allowing for the release or
escape of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity.

Vedanta:

The Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the
Upanishads (mystic or spiritual contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the Brahmanas
(instructions for ritual and sacrifice). The Vedanta focus on meditation, self-discipline and
spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism. Due to the rather cryptic and poetic nature
of the Vedanta sutras, the school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its
own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries: Advaita (the best-known, which
holds that the soul and Brahman are one and the same), Visishtadvaita (which teaches that the
Supreme Being has a definite form, name - Vishnu - and attributes), Dvaita (which espouses a
belief in three separate realities: Vishnu, and eternal soul and matter), Dvaitadvaita (which holds
that Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent), Shuddhadvaita (which
believes that Krishna is the absolute form of Brahman) and Acintya Bheda Abheda (which
combines monism and dualism by stating that the soul is both distinct and non-distinct from
Krishna, or God).

HETORODOX (NON-HINDU) SCHOOLS: CARVAKA, JAIN, BUDDHA:

There are schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are categorised by Brahmins as
unorthodox (nastika) systems. Chief among the latter category are Buddhism, Jainism and
Cārvāka.
Jain philosophy:
Jainism came into formal being after Mahavira synthesised philosophies and promulgations of
the ancient Sramana philosophy, during the period around 550 BC, in the region that is present
day Bihar in northern India. This period marked an ideological renaissance, in which the Vedic
dominance was challenged by various groups like Jainism and Buddhism.
A Jain is a follower of Jinas, spiritual 'victors' (Jina is Sanskrit for 'victor'), human beings who
have rediscovered the dharma, become fully liberated and taught the spiritual path for the benefit
of beings. Jains follow the teachings of 24 special Jinas who are known as Tirthankars
('fordbuilders'). The 24th and most recent Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, lived in c.6th century BC,
in a period of Cultural Revolution all over the world. During this period, Socrates was born in
Greece, Zoroaster in Iran, Lao Tse and Confucious in China and Mahavira and Buddha in India.
The 23rd Thirthankar of Jains, Lord Parsvanatha is recognised now as a historical person, lived
during 872 to 772 BC... Jaina tradition is unanimous in making Rishabha, as the First Tirthankar.
Jainism is not considered as a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism). Even as there is
constitutional ambiguity over its status. Jain tirthankars find exclusive mention in the Vedas and
the Hindu epics. During the Vedantic age, India had two broad philosophical streams of thought:
The Shramana philosophical schools, represented by Buddhism, Jainism, and the long defunct
and Ajivika on one hand, and the Brahmana/Vedantic/Puranic schools represented by Vedanta,
Vaishnava and other movements on the other. Both streams are known to have mutually
influenced each other.
The Hindu scholar Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism in the area of
the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as
the originator of Ahimsa and wrote in a letter printed in Bombay Samachar, Mumbai: 10 Dec
1904: "In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support
of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta. But the credit for the
disappearance of this terrible massacre from the Brahminical religion goes to Jainism." Swami
Vivekananda also credited Jainsim as one of the influencing forces behind the Indian culture.
One of the main characteristics of Jain belief is the emphasis on the immediate consequences of
one's physical and mental behavior. Because Jains believe that everything is in some sense alive
with many living beings possessing a soul, great care and awareness is required in going about
one's business in the world. Jainism is a religious tradition in which all life is considered to be
worthy of respect and Jain teaching emphasizes this equality of all life advocating the non
harming of even the smallest creatures. Non-violence (Ahimsa) is the basis of right View, the
condition of right Knowledge and the kernel of right Conduct in Jainism.
Jainism encourages spiritual independence (in the sense of relying on and cultivating one's own
personal wisdom) and self-control (vratae) which is considered vital for one's spiritual
development. The goal, as with other Indian religions, is moksha which in Jainism is realization
of the soul's true nature, a condition of omniscience (Kevala Jnana). Anekantavada is one of the
principles of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view,
and that no single point of view is completely true. Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis, those
who have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only know a
part of the answer. Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of
Subjectivism.
Buddhist philosophy:
Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a
prince later known as the Buddha, or "awakened one". From its inception, Buddhism has had a
strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox
Hindu philosophical concepts. The Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical being and
non-being as misleading views caused by reification, and this critique is inextricable from the
founding of Buddhism.
Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in karma, a
cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that
occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. A major departure from Hindu and Jain
philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent, self-existent soul (atman) in favor of anatta
(non-Self) and anicca (impermanence).
Jain thinkers rejected this view, opining that if no continuing soul could be accepted then even
the effort to attain any worldly objective would be useless, as the individual acting and the one
receiving the consequences would be different. Therefore, the conviction in individuals that the
doer is also the reaper of consequences establishes the existence of a continuing soul.
Cārvāka philosophy:
Cārvāka or Lokāyata was a philosophy of skepticism and materialism, founded in the Mauryan
period. They were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Cārvāka deemed
Vedas to be tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology. And in
contrast to Buddhists and Jains, they mocked the concept of liberation, reincarnation and
accumulation of merit or demerit through the performance of certain actions. They believed that,
the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the "reasoning of fools". Cārvāka
thought consciousness was an emanation from the body and it ended with the destruction of the
body. They used quotes from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad to support this claim. Cārvāka denied
inference as a means of knowledge and held sensory indulgence as the final objective of life.
Cārvāka held the view that Invariable Concomitance (vyapti), a theory of Indian logic which
refers to the relation between middle term and major term freed from all conditions, could not be
ascertained. However, Buddhists refuted this view by proposing that Invariable Concomitance
was easily cognizable from the relation between cause and effect or from the establishment of
identity.
Modern Indian philosophy was developed during British occupation (1750–1947). The
philosophers in this era gave contemporary meaning to traditional philosophy. Some of them
were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Sri
Aurobindo, Kireet Joshi, Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, Debiprasad Chattopadhyay, M. N.
Roy, Indra Sen, Haridas Chaudhuri, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Ananda Coomaraswamy,
Ramana Maharshi, and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.
Among contemporary Indian philosophers, Osho and J. Krishnamurti developed their own
schools of thought. Pandurang Shastri Athavale, U. G. Krishnamurti and Krishnananda are other
prominent names in contemporary Indian philosophy.
Political philosophy:
The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya, is one of the early Indian texts
devoted to political philosophy. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft
and economic policy.
The political philosophy most closely associated with India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence)
and Satyagraha, popularised by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for independence. It
was influenced by the Indian Dharmic philosophy, particularly the Bhagvata Gita, as well as
secular writings of authors such as Leo Tolstoy, Henry David Thoreau and John Ruskin. In turn
it influenced the later movements for independence and civil rights, especially those led by
Martin Luther King, Jr. and to a lesser extent Nelson Mandela.

UNIT-IV

INDIAN LINGUISTIC TRADITION:

PHONOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS

Indian linguistic thought begins around the 8th–6th centuries bce with the composition of
Padapāṭhas (word-for-word recitation of Vedic texts where phonological rules generally are not
applied). It took various forms over these 26 centuries and involved different languages
(Ancient, Middle, and Modern Indo-Aryan as well as Dravidian languages).
The greater part of documented thought is related to Sanskrit (Ancient Indo-Aryan). Very early,
the oral transmission of sacred texts—the Vedas, composed in Vedic Sanskrit—made it
necessary to develop techniques based on a subtle analysis of language. The Vedas also—but
presumably later—gave birth to bodies of knowledge dealing with language, which are
traditionally called Vedāṅgas: phonetics (śikṣā), metrics (chandas), grammar (vyākaraṇa), and
semantic explanation (nirvacana, nirukta). Later on, Vedic exegesis (mīmāṃsā), new dialectics
(navya-nyāya), lexicography, and poetics (alaṃkāra) also contributed to linguistic thought.
Though languages other than Sanskrit were described in premodern India, the grammatical
description of Sanskrit—given in Sanskrit—dominated and influenced them more or less
strongly. Sanskrit grammar (vyākaraṇa) has a long history marked by several major steps
(Padapāṭha versions of Vedic texts, Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali, Bhartṛhari’s
works, Siddhāntakaumudī of Bhaṭṭoji Dīkṣita, Nāgeśa’s works), and the main topics it addresses
(minimal meaning-bearer units, classes of words, relation between word and meaning/referent,
the primary meaning/referent of nouns) are still central issues for contemporary linguistics.

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