Sampling Population: Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes

to investigate. Element: An element is a single member of the population. If 1000 blue-collar workers in a particular organization happen to be the population of interest to a researcher, each blue-collar worker therein is an element. If 500 pieces of machinery are to be approved after inspecting a few, there would be 500 elements in this population. Sample: A sample is a subset of the population. Subject: A subject is single member of the sample, just as an element is a single member of the population. Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, so that a study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the population elements. Reasons for sampling: In research investigations involving several hundreds and even thousands of elements, it would be practically impossible to collect data from, or test, or examine every element. Even if it were possible, it would be prohibitive in terms of time, cost, and other human resources. Study of a sample rather than the entire population is also sometimes likely to produce more reliable results. This is mostly because fatigue is reduced and fewer errors will therefore result in collecting data, especially when a large number of elements is involved. Representativeness of samples: The need for choosing the right sample for a research investigation cannot be overemphasized. We know that rarely will the sample be the exact replica of the population from which it is drawn. For instance, very few sample means are likely to be exactly equal to the population means. Normality of distributions: Attributes or characteristics of the population are generally normally distributed. When the properties of the population are not overrepresented or underrepresented in the sample, we will have a representative sample. When a sample consists of elements in the population that have extremely high values on the variable we are studying, the sample mean will be far higher than the population mean and vice versa. Probability Sampling: When elements in the population have a known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample, we resort to a probability sampling design. Probability sampling can be either unrestricted (simple random sampling) or restricted (complex probability sampling) in nature. In the unrestricted probability sampling design, more commonly known as simple random sampling, every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject. Let us say there are 1000 elements in the population, and we need a sample of 100. Suppose we were to drop pieces of paper in a hat, each bearing the name of one of the element, and draw 100 100 0f those from the hat with our eyes closed. We know the first piece drawn wil have a 1/1000 chance of being drawn, the next 1/999 chance being drawn,
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and so on. In other words, we know that the probability of any one of them being chosen is 1 in the number of the population, and we also know that each single element in the hat has the same or equal probability of being chosen. This sampling design, known as simple random sampling, has the least bias and offers the most generalizability. However this sampling process could become expensive, in addition an entirely updated listing of the population may not be available. For this reason, other probability sampling design are often chosen instead. Restricted or Complex probability Sampling: As an alternative to the simple random sampling design, several complex probability sampling procedures offer a viable, and sometimes more efficient alternative to the unrestricted design we just discussed. Efficiency is improved in that more information can be obtained for a given sample size using some of the complex probability sampling procedures than the simple random sampling design. The five most common complex probability sampling designs are: systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, area sampling, and double sampling. Systematic random sample: A random starting point is selected, and then every nth member of the population is selected. First, k is calculated as the population size divided by the sample size. For Computer Printer Unlimited, we would select every 20th (2000/100) invoice from the file drawers; in so doing the numbering process is avoided. If n is not whole number, then round down.
Systematic sampling is a statistical method involving the selection of elements from an ordered sampling frame. The most common form of systematic sampling is an equal-probability method, in which every kth element in the frame is selected, where k, the sampling interval (sometimes known as the skip), is calculated as:
A method of selecting sample members from a larger population according to a random starting point and a fixed, periodic interval. Typically, every "nth" member is selected from the total population for inclusion in the sample population. Systematic sampling is still thought of as being random, as long as the periodic interval is determined beforehand and the starting point is random.

Stratified random sampling: A population is divided into subgroups, called strata, and a sample is randomly selected from each stratum.
A method of sampling that involves the division of a population into smaller groups known as strata

There may often be factors which divide up the population into sub-populations (groups / strata) and we may expect the measurement of interest to vary among the different sub-populations. This has to be accounted for when we select a sample from the population in order that we obtain a sample that is representative of the population. This is achieved by stratified sampling. Suppose a farmer wishes to work out the average milk yield of each cow type in his herd which consists of Ayrshire, Friesian, Galloway and Jersey cows. He could divide up his herd into the four sub-groups and take samples from these.

Cluster sampling: A population is divided into cluster using naturally occurring geographic or other boundaries. Then, clusters are randomly selected and a sample is collected by randomly selecting from each cluster. Suppose you divided the state into 12 primary regions. Then selected at random four regions 2, 7, 4 and 12 and concentrated your efforts in these primary units. You could take a random sample of the residents in each of these regions and interview them. (Note that this is a combination of cluster sampling and simple random sampling). Nonprobability Sampling: In nonprobability sampling designs, the elements in the population do not have any probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects. This means that the findings from the study of the sample cannot be confidently generalized to the population. Some of the nonprobability sampling plans are more dependable than others and could offer some important leads to potentially useful information with regard to the population. The nonprobability sampling designs, which fit into the broad categories of convenience sampling and purposive sampling.

Convenience Sampling: Convenience Sampling refers to the collection of information from members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it. One would expect that the Pepsi Challenge contest was administered on a convenience sampling basis. Such a contest, with the purpose of determining whether people prefer one product to another, might be held at a shopping mall visited by many shoppers. Those inclined to take the test might from the sample for the study of how many people prefer Pepsi over Coke or product X to product Y. Such a sample is a convenient sample. Purposive Sampling: The sampling here is confined to specific types of people who can provide the desired information, either because they are the only ones who have it, or conform to some criteria set by the researcher. This type of sampling called purposive sampling and this have two major types of Judgment and quota sampling. Judgment Sampling: Involves the choice of subjects who are most advantageously placed or in the best position to provide the information required. Quota Sampling: Is a 2nd type of purposive sampling, ensures that certain groups are adequately represented in the study through the assignment of a quota. Generally, the quota fixed for each subgroup is based on the total numbers of each group in the population. However, since this is a nonprobability sampling plan, the results are not generalizable to the population. Issues of precision and confidence: Precision: Refers to how close our estimate is to the true population characteristic. Confidence: Confidence denotes how certa
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